219 
72 
20 
py 1 



3 219 
r72 
920 
Dpy 1 



1 



I 
^ JITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

BULLETIN No. 995 

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry 
WM. A. TAYLOR. Chief 



Washington, D. C. 



W 



October 14, 1921 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN THE 
UNITED STATES IN 1920 



By 

d^Or^'^OWNSEND, Pathologist in Charge 
OflRce of Sugar- Plant Investigations 



CONTENTS 



Page 
1 



Beet-Sugar Mills in the United States 

Soil 7 

Subsoil S 

Topography 9 

Climate 10 

Sugar-Beet Stand 13 

Water 19 

Dtainage 22 

Seepage 24 

Soil Fertility 26 

Crop Rotation 30 

Competing Crops 32 

Farm Equipment 35 



Beet By-Products and Live Stock . . . 

Labor Problems 

The Successful Grower 

Diseases 

Insects 

By-Products . . . . 

Roads 

Contracts 

Area Competition 

Sugar-Beet Seed 

Publications of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture Relating to Sugar 
and Its Production 



Page 
41 
42 
44 
45 
48 
49 
50 
51 
54 
55 



57 




WASHINGTON 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1921 



^ 



:d (:$ ^ ' '/ 



UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 




yU^-^'^-T'^ 



BULLETIN No. 995 

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry 
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief 




jrU^'^^jt. 



Washington, D. C. 



October 14, 1921 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED 
STATES IN 1920. 

By C. O. Town SEND, 
PathoJofiist in Charge, Office of fiu(jar-Plant InrestifKitions. 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Beet-sugar mills in the United States^ 1 

Soil , 7 

Subsoil 8 

Topogi-aphj- ;: 

Climate 10 

Sugar-beet stand 13 

Water 10 

Drainage 22 

Seepage 24 

Soil fertility .26 

Crop rotation .'!0 

Competing crops 32 

Farm equipment 35 



Page. 

Beet by-products and live stock 41 

[Labor problems 42 

The successful grower 44 

■ •ni'scas.es '.:■__ 4r> 

Injects 4S 

By-products 40 

Roads .">0 

Contracts . 51 

Area comp+'tition 54 

Sugar-beet seed 55 

Publications of the United States 
Department of Agricultuie relat- 
ing to sugar and the production.. 57 



BEET-SUGAR MILLS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

In the United States in 1919, 9S beet-sugar mills were standing- and 
e(iuii3ped for extracting and refining- sugar from beet roots. The 
oldest one of the mills noAv standing was built in 1870 at Ah^arado, 
Calif. During the summer of 1919, 4 of the 98 mills had been ei'ected 
and equipped for the campaign of 1919-20, C> additional ones Avere 
built ancf equipped for the handling of the 1920-t21 crop, and two 
others are iii i)rocess of construction, making a total of lOG beet- 
sugar mills now standing. (Table I.) 

56830° — Bull. 005—21 1 



BULLETIN 995, U. S. DEPAETMEISTT OF AGEICULTURE. 



Table I. — American beet-sugar mills in 1920. 



Location. 



State. 



California. 
Nebraska. 

Utah 

California. 

do.... 

Wisconsin 

Utah 

California. 

do.... 

do.... 

Colorado. . 
Michigan . 

do.... 

do.... 

do.... 

do.... 

Colorado. . 

do.... 

Ohio 

Mii;higan . 

do.... 

do.... 

Colorado. . 

Utah 

Colorado.. 
....do.... 
Michigan . 
....do.... 
....do.... 
....do.... 

Utah 

Idaho .... 
Michigan . 
....do.... 
....do.... 
Colorado. . 

....do 

....do.... 
Wisconsin 
....do.... 

Idaho 

....do.... 

Utah 

Michigan . 
Illinois . . . 
Colorado. . 
....do. ... 
Wisconsin 
Colorado.. 
....do.... 
....do.... 
Montana.. 
Kansas . . . 
CaUfornia . 
Minne.sota 
Colorado. . 

Iowa 

California. 

Nebraska. 

Ohio 

Nevada... 

Ohio 

Utah 

CaUfornia.. 

....do 

....do 

Idaho .... 

Ohio 

....do 

Indiana. . . 

Utah 

....do 

Wyoming. 
...".do..... 



Town. 



Alvarado 

Grand Island 

Lehi 

Chino 

Los Alaniitos 

Menomonee Falls . 

Ogden 

Oxnard 

Betteravia 

Spreckels 

Grand Junction . . . 

Holland 

Bay City 

Alma 

West Bay City.... 

Caro 

Rocky Ford 

Sugar City 

Fremont 

Marine Citv 

Bay City.." 

Lansing 

Loveland 

Logan 

Greeley 

Eaton. 

CarroUton 

Mount Clemens. . . 

Croswell 

Sebewaing 

Garland 

Idaho Falls 

St. Louis 

Menominee 

Owosso 

FortColUns 

Windsor 

Longmont 

Chippewa Falls.. . 

.Tanesville 

Blackfoot 

Sugar City 

Lewiston 

BUssfield 

Riverdale 

Lamar 

Sterling 

Madison 

Brush 

Fort Morgan 

Swink 

Billings 

Garden City ; 

Hamilton City 

Chaska 

Las Animas 

Waverly 

New Delhi (Santa 
Ana). 

ScottsblufT 

Paulding 

Fallon 

Findlay 

Elsinofe 

Anaheim , 

Huntington Beach 
Dyer (Santa Ana). 

Burlev 

Toledo 

Ottawa 

Decatur 

Payson 

Layton 

Sheridan 

Lovell 



Date 
of erec- 
tion. 



1870 
1890 
1891 
1891 
1897 
1897 
1898 
1898 
1899 
1899 
1899 
1899 
1899 
1899 
1899 
1899 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1901 
1901 
1901 
. 1901 
1902 
1902 
1902 
1902 
1902 
1902 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1903 
1904 
1904 
1904 
1904 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1905 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1907 
1907 
1908 

1910 
1910 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1912 
1912 
1912 
1912 
1912 
1913 
1915 
1915 
1916 



Name of company. 



Capacity." 



Origi- Pre«- 
nal. ent. 



Tons. 

Alameda Sugar Co 500 

American Beet Sugar Co 350 

Utah-Idaho Sugar Co 300 

American Beet-Sugar Co 400 

Los Alamitos Sugar Co 3.50 

Wisconsin Sugar Co | 500 

Amalgamated Sugar Co 350 

American Beet Sugar Co 2, 000 

Union Sugar Co 500 

Spreckels Sugar Co 3, 000 

HoUy Sugar Corporation 350 

Holland-St. Louis Sugar Co 350 

Michigan Sugar Co 600 

do 600 

West Bay City Sugar Co 500 

Michigan Sugar Co 600 

American Beet Sugar Co 1, (XK) 

National Sugar Mfg. Co 500 

Continental Sugar Co 350 

Independent Sugar Co 350 

Columbia Sugar Co 400 

Owosso Sugar Co 600 

Great Western Sugar Co 1, 000 

Amalgamated Sugar Co 400 

Great Western Sugar Co 700 

do 600 

Michigan Sugar Co 800 

Mount Clemens Sugar Co 600 

Michigan Sugar Co. . .•. 600 

do 600 

Utah-Idaho Sugar Co 700 

. .... .do fiOO 

Holland-St. Louis Sugar Co 500 

Menominee River Sugar Co 1, 000 

Owosso Sugar Co 1, 000 

Great Western Sugar Co 1, 200 

do 600 

do 600 

Chippewa Sugar Refining Co 600 

Rock County Sugar Co 600 

U tah-Idaho Sugar Co 600 

do 700 

Amalgamated Sugar Co 600 

Continental Sugar Co 600 

Charles Pope, Chicago 350 

American Beet Sugar Co 400 

Great Western Sugar Co 600 

United States Sugar Co 600 

Great Western Sugar Co 750 

do j 600 

HoUy Sugar Corporation i 1, 200 

Great Western Sugar Co ; 1, 200 

Garden Cit v Sugar & Land Co ... ' 1, 000 



Sacramento VaUey Sugar Co. 

Minnesota Sugar Co 

American Beet Sugar Co 

Iowa Sugar Co 

Southern CaUfornia Sugar Co. 



Great Western Sugar Co 

Columbia Sugar Co 

Lahontan Valley Sugar Co. 

Continental Sugar Co 

Utah-Idaho Sugar Co 

Anaheim Sugar Co 

Holly Sugar Corporation 

Santa Ana Sugar Co 

Amalgamated Sugar Co 

Toledo Sugar Co 

Ohio Sugar Co 

Holland-St, Louis Sugar Co. 

Utah-Idaho Sugar Co 

Layton Sugar Co 

Sheridan Sugar Co 

Great Western Sugar Co 



600 
600 
700 
400 
600 

1,200 
700 
500 
600 
.500 
500 
750 
600 
400 

1,000 
600 
700 
500 
500 
600 
600 



Tons. 

800 

500 

1,200 

1,100 

900 

600 

1, 000 

3,000 

1,200 

4, .-.0 ) 

700 

500 

1,400 

1,400 

900 

1, 200 

1, 800 

.500 

600 

600 

1, 500 
800 

1,950 

700 

1,050 

1,200 

900 

600 

750 

850 

900 

900 

600 

1,200 

1,300 

2, 150 

1, 150 

2, 3.50 
600 
700 
800 
900 
800 

1,000 

500 

500 

1, 050 

600 

1, 100 

1, 200 

1, 200 

2,000 

1,000 

700 

800 

1,000 

500 

600 

2,000 

900 

500 

900 

750 

1,200 

1,200 

1,200 

700 

1,500 

700 

800 

750 

600 

900 

600 



" Number of tons of beets that may be sliced each 24 hours. 

b Rebuilt in 1879, 1887, and 1889. 

c Acquired by the Holly Sugar Corporation. 



79 

SO 
SI 

S2 
s:j 

Si 
S5 
Si) 
S7 
88 
S9 
90 
91 
92 
93 
94 
95 
96 
97 
98 
99 
100 
101 
102 
103 
104 
105 
lOG 



THE BKET-ST^GAR INDUSTHV IX l'.»2(). 
Tabt.e I. — Ainericiin hcvt-xu(i(ir iiiilla in 1920 — Continued. 



Location . 



State. 



Idaho 

Nebraska — 

Utah 

do 

do 

Idaho 

Utah 

do 

Colorado 

Nebraska 

Iowa 

California 

Utah 

do 

Idaho 

CaUforiiia.. . 
Wyoming. . 
Wasliingtoii 

Utah 

do 

do 

Washington 

Idaho 

Washington 
Nebraska... 

Idaho 

Michigan . . . 

Iowa 

Wisconsui . . 

Utah 

Colorado 

do 



Town. 



Twin Falls 

Gering 

Spanish Fork 

West .Tordaii 

Brigham 

Paul 

Smithlk'ld 

Delta 

Brighton 

Bayard 

Mason City 

Manleca 

Moroni 

Cornish 

Shollev 

Trat-y 

Worland 

Yakima 

Springville 

Centerfield 

Hooper 

Sunnvside 

Rigby 

Toppenish 

Mitchell 

Whitney 

Mount Pleasant. 

Belmond 

Green Bay 

Honev^■ilie 

Delta 

Fort Lupton — 



Date 
of erec- 
tion. 



1910 
1916 
1916 
1916 
1916 
1917 
1917 
1917 
1917 
1917 
1917 
1917 
1917 
1917 
1917 
1917 
1917 
1917 
191S 
191. s 
1919 
1919 
1919 
1919 
1920 
1920 
1920 
1920 
1920 
1920 
1920 
1920 



Name of company. 



Amalgamated Sugar Co 

Great Western Sugar Co 

Utah-Idaho Sugar Co 

....do 

do 

Amalgamated Sugar Co 

do 

Utah-Idaho Sugar Co 

Great Western Sugar Co 

do 

Northern Sugar Corporation. 

Spreckels Sugar Co 

People's Sugar Corporation.. 

Amalgamated Sugar Co 

Utah-Idaho Sugar Co 

Alameda Sugar Co 

Wyoming Sugar Co 

Utah-Idaho Sugar Co 

Spruigvllk'-Mapleton Sugar Co . 



Capacity. 



Origi- Pres- 
nal. ent. 



Tons. 

600 

1,000 

7.50 

500 

500 

500 

500 

1,000 

1, 000 

1, (100 

1, 200 

1,000 

400 

600 

600 

.")00 

600 

600 

3.50 



Gunnison Valley Sugar Co 4.50 

Pioneer Sugar Co 

Utah-Idaho Sugar Co 

Beet Growers' Sugar Co 

Utah-Idaho Sugar Co 

Great AVestern Sugar Co 

Pioneer Sugar Co 

Columbia Sugar Co 

Iowa Valley Sugar Co 

(ireen Bay Sugar Co 

Utah-Idaho Sugar Co 

Holly Sugar ('orporation 

Industrial Sugar Co 



400 
7.50 
800 
7.50 

1,000 
600 

1,000 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 



Tons. 

800 

1,100 

1,000 

750 

7.50 

600 

700 

1,000 

1,000 

1,000 

1,200 

1,200 

400 

600 

7.50 

.500 

600 

750 

350 

4.50 

400 

750 

800 

750 

1,000 

600 

1,000 

600 

600 

600 

600 

600 



Dale 
en- 
larged . 



During the past ■'iO years .") other mills have been built, but 3 of 
them have burned, 1 has been dismantled, and 1 has been utilized for 
some purpose other than that of making beet sugar. Of the 106 
beet-sugar mills now standing (tig. 1). 2G were erected at some 



(•"• / X L**»L 
\ . \ L^ V 


-___^ 




••• 

MISS 


:^ 




■3 


• S DA K 
WYO 

T [•• NEB'' 

/ ?«*^>» 

, COL / 


M 1 N N /^ >- 

• k w 

IOWA 
MO 


r •/a 

IND I 

TENN 

— 1 

ALA A 


"n, S C y^ 
GA \j/ 


OKL 
N M EX L^ 




ARK 


1 




\fla\ 



i'"iG. 1. — Outline map showiiij; by black dot.s the location.s of beet-sugar mills that 
were in operation during the 1920-21 campaign. Mills that were standing idle 
during the 1920-21 campaign are indicated by an X mark. 



4 BULLETIN 995, U. S, DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

point other than the ph\ce Avhere they are noAv located, but owing to 
certain limiting factors in beet-sugar production these 26 mills were 
removed to other locations (fig. 2 and Table II) ; 2 of these were 
built in Canada and removed to the Ignited States and 1 was built in 
this country and removed to Canada. 

Tabi^e II. — Or'm'nxiJ iiikJ pj-escnt locations: of the rctnorrd hci-i-suynr iiiilhs. 



Date 
of 
■ ] erec- 
1 tion. 



1S91 
1S97 



1898 
1898 

1898 
1899 
1899 
1899 
1899 
1899 

1900 
1901 
1902 
1902 
1903 
1905 
1905 

1906 
190() 
1906 

1908 
1911 

1916 
1917 
1918 



AVliero built. 



State. 



Town. 



Date 



mov- 
ed. 



Nebr. 
N. Y. 



Greg . . 
GaUt. . 

Mich.. 
...do.. 
...do.. 
...do.. 
Nebr. . 
Wash. 

N. Y.. 

Mich.. 
Out... 
...do.. 
Mich.. 
Colo . . 
Ariz .. 

Idalio . 
Mich . . 
Calif. . 

...do.. 
Colo... 

Greg.. 
Mont . 
...do.. 



Norfolk 1905 

Rome 1906 



.do.. Binghamton. 



La Grande... 
Crockett 



Bay City 

Benton Harltor 

Rochester 

Kalamazoo 

Leavitt 

Waverly 



Lyons 

Sagmaw 

Dresden 

Wiarton 

-East Tawas... 

Holly 

Glendale 



Nampa 

Charlevoix . . 
Visalia 



Corcoran 

Monte Vista. . 

Grant's Pass. 

Missoula 

WhitehaU. . . . 



1912 
1908 

1907 
1902 
19!'o 
1904 
1910 
1918 

1911 
1905 
1904 
190S 
190f. 
1915 
1920 

1916 
1912 
1919 

1920 
1916 

1919 
1920 
1920 



Present location . 



Colo. . . . 
Cahf... 

Idaho.. 

...do.. . 
CaUf.. . 

Iowa.. . 
Ontario 
Wis... 
...do.. 
Nebr. . 
Utah.. 

Calif. . 
Colo. . . 
Wis... 
Calif.. 
Minn . 
Wyo.. 
Colo... 

Utah.. 
Ohio.. 
Utah.. 

Idaho . 
Wyo . . 

Wash . 
Nebr. . 
Utah.. 



I^amar . 
Visalia. 



Blackfoot 



Bmley. .. 
Corcoran . 



Waverly 

Berlin. ." , 

Madison 

Chippewa Falls 

Scotts Bluff 

Centerfield 



.Vnahcim. . 
Sterling... 
.TanesviUe. 
Santa Ana 

Chaska 

Sheridan. . 
Delta 



Spanish Fork. 

Ottawa 

Hooper 



Whitney. 
Lovell..".. 



Toppenish . 
Mitchell.... 
Honeyville. 



Capac- 
ity 
(tons). 



Oris^inal owners. 



350-500 
200 



350-600 
500-1,000 

350-^500 
350 
500-(i(M) 
500-600 
500-2,000 
350-500 



6011-1, 200 
600-1,050 
600- 
3.5(Mi0() 
60(I-S(MI 
60l)-900 
<;(M) 

"5(V1,(M)0 

600-700 

400 

600 
600 

500 

1, 0(K) 

600 



Norfolk Beet Sugar Co. 
First New York Beet 

Sugar Co. 
Binghamton Beet Susrar 

Co. 
Oregon Sugar Co. 
California Beet Sugar it 

Refining Co. 
Michigan Sugar Co. 
Wolverine Sugar Co. 
Detroit Sugar Co. 
Kalamazoo Sugar Co. 
Standard Beet Sugar Co. 
Wasliingtou State Sugar 

Co. 
Empire State Sugar Co. 
Saginaw Sugar Co. 
])ri's<l('n Sugar Co. 
(.'olonial Sugar Co. 
Tawas Sugar Co. 
Holly Sugar Co. 
Western Sugar ct Land 

Co. 
Western Idaho Sugar Co. 
West Michigan Su'-'ar Co. 
San Joai|uin Valley 

Sugar Co. 
Pingree Sugar Co. 
San Luis \'alley Beet 

Sugar Co. 
Utah-Idaho Sugar Co. 
Great Western Sugar Co. 
Amalgamated Sugar Co. 



Of the three mills that were burned, little is known about the actual 
working of the one at Staunton, Va., or the one at Eddy, N. Mex. 
The former operated for tAvo years and tlie latter for three years, 
but evidently they were not sufficiently successful to warrant rebuild- 
ing. They were of small capacity and constructed from second-hand 
material. The mill formerly at St. Louis Park, Minn., which w^as 
burned in 1905, operated with fair success during each of the seven 
years of its existence. The mill at AVatsonville, Calif., which was 
erected in 1888, was closed in 1899 and has since been dismantled. 
The mill at Pekin, 111., erected in 1899, was closed in 1900 and has 
since been transformed into a glucose plant. Further data regard- 
ing these five mills are given in Table III, 



THE BKKT-STTCAR IXDl'STHY IN 11)20. 

T.^Bi.E III. — lircl-NKfKir mills dcslroiKd or used for (ithcr i)iiri)o.s<s tliait 

iiKikint) xnyar. 



No. 


I.ocatlon. 


Date 
erect- 
ed. 


Xanie of (•onii)any. 


Capac- 
ity 
(tons). 


Present stains. 


State. 


Town. 


1 
> 


California 

Virginia 

New Mexico . . 
Minnesota 


Wal sonville 

Staunton 

Eddy 


1888... 
1892... 
18%... 
1898... 
1899... 


Western Beet Sugar Co 


1,000 

C) 
200 
350 
700 


Dismantled, 
Burned, 1S94. 


3 


Pecos Valley Beet Sugar Co 

Minnesota Sugar Co 

Illinois Sugar- Refining Co 


Burned, igo.'^. 


4 

1 


St. Louis Park.. 


Burned, igitt. 








1902. 



" Not known. 

The lOG mills now standing- are for the most part favorably sit- 
uated for e.xtractinjj; and refinino; beet sn<iar under present condi- 
tions. In manv instances certain limiting' factoi's will need careful 




Fig. -. — Outline ni.ip showing- the original loeation of H\ l)eet-s.ugar niilLs (E) and 
the points to which they were removed (R). For example, IE shows the original 
loc.ition of mill No. 1 and ]R the point to which that mill was removed; :iE the 
original location of mill No. 2 and 2R the point to which it was removed ; and .<o 
on for each mill listed in Table II. Facloi-'ies IME and JL'E are in the same loca- 
tions as those designated liy 2R and oR. 



consideration and readjustment before a sufficient (iuantity of raw 
material can be assured annually to make all of them permanently 
successful. In many areas beet-su<>ar mills have been crowded in too 
rapidly, so that it has not been possible to readjust the farming opera- 
tions and install the required drainage, irrigation, and other improve- 
ments with sufficient rapidity to provide the necessary well-prepared 
acreage to supply enough sugar beets to insure a normal mill run. Con- 
sequently neither the mill owners nor the growers have received under 
these conditions a ma.ximum return for the nionev and labor invested 



BULLETIN" 995, V. S. DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE, 
Table IV. — Beet-xugur prodiirtion, J916 to 1920. 











Beets 


produced. 


Average. 




Price paid for 
beets. 




Num- 
ber of 

sugar 
mills. 


Days 
oper- 
ating . 


Beets 
har- 
vested. 








Sugar 
made. 






Location 
and year. 


Aver- 
age 


Total. 


E.x- 
trac- 


Sugar 
in the 


Coeffi- 
cient 

of pu- 
rity. 


Aver- 

a.ge 


Total. 










per 
acre. 




tion. 


beets. 




per 
ton. 




California: 






Acr(s. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


P.ct. 


P. ct. 




Tons. 






1916 


11 


108 


141,097 


.10.47 


1,477,426 


16.15 


18.35 


84.13 


236, 322 


$6.30 


89,311,000 


1917.... 


14 


92 


161,909 


8.22 


1,331,548 


15.84 


18.48 


82.91 


209, 325 


7.60 


10, 125, 000 


1918 


13 


81 


100, 684 


8.52 


858, 028 


14.52 


17.03 


81.50 


122, 795 


9.95 


S, 534, 000 


1919.... 


10 


76 


107,174 


7.61 


815, 896 


16.30 


17. 87 


82.02 


131,172 


14.17 


11,561,000 


1920 


10 


90 


122,813 


8.74 


1,073,828 


15.97 


17.66 


81.44 


167,997 


13.13 


14,096,000 


Colorado: 
























191fi.... 


14 


102 


188,568 


10.70 


2,018,298 


13. 04 


15. 00 


85.79 


252, 147 


6.06 


12,236,000 


1917 


15 


91 


161,476 


11.50 


1,857,649 


13.39 


15. 40 


85.16 


234, .303 


7.28 


13,.52'i,000 


1918 


14 


76 


125, 882 


11.47 


1, 443, 846 


14.07 


16. 10 


85.96 


191, 880 


10.02 


14,474,000 


1919 


15 


87 


182,616 


9.66 


1,764,772 


11.71 


13.62 


83.85 


193, 890 


10. 85 


19,143,000 


1920.... 


17 


98 


219, 847 


10. .58 


2, .325, 003 


13.tj0 


15.81 


&5. 15 


294, 482 


11.88 


27,627,000 


Idaho: 
























1916 


5 


86 


42, 135 


8.48 


357, 137 


13. 84 


16.95 


86.39 


45,874 


6.16 


2,199,000 


1917.... 


7 


70 


37,745 


8.27 


312,067 


13.40 


16.74 


84.84 


38,-376 


7.06 


2,203,000 


191? 


7 


87 


32, 306 


10.66 


344, 334 


13. 66 


16.57 


86. 46 


44, 682 


10.00 


3,443,000 


1919.... 


6 


50 


30, 331 


6.70 


203, 168 


13.29 


15. 48 


86. 15 


26, 159 


11.00 


2,235,000 


1920 


8 


72 


45, 810 


8.82 


404, 078 


13.94 


16.26 


86.41 


57, 603 


12.10 


4,88^,000 


Michigan : 
























1916 


15 


49 


99, 619 


.1.46 


543, 766 


13.79 


16.37 j 85.22 


69,341 


6.14 


.3,337,003 


1917 


14 


53 


82, 151 


6.38 


524, 195 


13.91 


16.28 


86.57 


64, 247 


8.04 


1,215,000 


1918 


16 


75 


114,976 


8.40 


966, 676 


14.37 


16.61 


85. 49 ■ 


127,979 


10.08 


9,741,000 


1919.... 


16 


84 


123,375 


9.82 


1,211,018 


12.63 


14. 57 


81.78 


1.30, 385 


12. 52 


15, 158, 00!) 


1920 


17 


87 


149, 559 


8.78 


1,312,883 


13.34 


15. 79 


84. 04 


165, 899 


10.08 


13,236,000 


Nel)raska: 
























1916 


3 


160 


41,083 


10.34 


424,913 


12.86 


15. 51 


81.12 


51,945 


6.17 


2,622,000 


1917 


4 


97 


51,337 


9.22 


473, 494 


12.16 


14.91 


80.71 


53, 893 


7.22 


:5, 417,000 


1918.... 


4 


99 


42, 746 


11.35 


485,070 


14.01 


16.05 


86. 14 


63, 494 


9.96 


4.833,000 


1919.... 


4 


112 


59, 113 


10.16 


600, 730 


10.99 


1.3.14 


82. 80 


60, 870 


10. 90 


6, 546, 000 


1920 .... 


5 


110 


72,296 


9.93 


717,956 


13.37 


15. 74 


83.94 


89, 518 


11.96 


8, -587, 000 


Ohio: 
























1916 


4 


45 


24, 767 


5.96 


147,718 


13.24 


15. 89 


83.36 


18,234 


6.83 


1,008,000 


1917.... 


5 


70 


24, 234 


9.08 


219,931 


12. C8 


16.24 


86.25 


24, 467 


7.18 


1,58C,000 


1918 


5 


91 


32, 547 


9.69 


315, 371 


12.19 


15.74 


84. 23 


35, 476 


10.03 


3,162,000 


1919.... 


5 


79 


30, 909 


10.58 


326, 962 


10.93 


14. 15 


82.73 


31,864 


12.75 


4,168,000 


1920 


5 


100 


49, 199 


8.86 


435, 928 


12.31 


15.44 


82. 45 


47, 073 


9.89 


4,313,000 


rtah: 
























1916 


11 


95 


68, 211 


11.70 


798, 119 


12. 75 


16. C5 


84.79 


90, 277 


5.73 


4,577,000 


1917 


15 


82 


80, 289 


7.49 


762,028 


12. 01 


15.61 


82.27 


83, 662 


7.04 


5, 368, 000 


1918.... 


16 


98 


81,717 


12.27 


1,003,013 


11.69 


15.29 


84.21 


105, 794 


10.01 


10,041^000 


1919.... 


18 


84 


103, 247 


9.84 


1,01.5,873 


11.12 


13. 87 


82. 39 


101,025 


10.97 


11,148,000 


1920.... 


18 


1C2 


112,567 


12.35 


1,389,843 


12. 89 


15. 62 


84.27 


162,588 


12. 03 


16,713,000 


"Wisconsin: 














1 








1916 


3 


48 


7,000 


8.79 


61, 500 


11.58 


14.90 




6,800 


6.06 


373,000 


1917 


4 


53 


9,800 


8.10 


79, 372 


11.34 


15.03 




8,032 


8.81 


699, 000 


1918 


4 


61 


12,400 


8.05 


99, 777 


14.29 


16.29 


82.40 


13, 358 


10.00 


998, 000 


1919.... 


4 


60 


12, 100 


9.71 


117,443 


10.07 


13.16 


81.73 


10, 636 


12.02 


1,411,000 


1920 


5 


80 


20, 686 


9.19 


190,203 


12.40 


15. 86 


82. 53 


20, 943 


10.20 


1,940,000 


Other States: 
























1916 


8 


57 


52, 828 


7.56 


399, 379 


13.07 


15.69 


82.67 


49,717 


6.20 


2, 476, 000 


1917 


13 


51 


55, 856 


7.52 


420, 093 


12.46 


15.17 


81.87 


48, 902 


7.28 


3,0.59,000 


1918..-.. 


10 


64 


50, 752 


8.53 


432, 683 


13. 59 


15.95 


84.31 


55, 492 


9.86 


4,268,000 


1919 


11 


52 


43, 590 


8.39 


365,616 


11.95 


14.27 


83.14 


40,450 


11.08 


4, 050, 000 


1920 . . . . 


12 


70 


79, 599 


8.75 


696, 471 


13.06 


15. 46 


83.12 


83,918 


11.52 


8, 025, 000 


All States: 
























1916 


74 


SO 


665, 308 


9.36 


6, 228, 256 


13.86 


16.30 


84.74 


820,657 


6.12 


38,139,000 


1917 


91 


74 


664, 797 


9.00 


5,980,377 


13. 60 


16.28 


83.89 


765,207 


7.39 


44,192,000 


1918 


89 


81 


594, 010 


10.01 


5, 948, 798 


13. 64 


16. 18 


84.70 


760,950 


10.00 


59,494,000 


1919 


89 


78 


692,455 


9.27 


6,421,478 


12.34 


14.48 


82.84 


726, 4.51 


11.74 


75, 420, 000 


1920 


97 


91 


872, 376 


9.80 


8, 546, 193 


13.63 


15.99 


S3. 97 


1,090,021 


11.63 


93,426.000 



For several years the Office of Siioar-Plant Investigations, jointly 
with the Office of Farm Management and Farm Economics and inde- 
pendently, has been studying the agronomic conditions found in each 
of the existing and in some of the prospective sugar-beet centers. 
This bulletin discusses the conditions which have been brought out in 
these studies and points out in a general way the factors that are 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN 1920. 7 

favorable and those that are unfavorable for the production of «u^ai' 
beets. The primary object of this bulletin is to give a general survey 
of the beet-sugar industry, to encourage the more general application 
of those principles and practices which make for better returns to the 
grower, and to discourage those practices which tend to reduce the 
3'ields and quality of sugar beets and of othei- crops and also to un- 
balance the relation between crop production and the kind, number, 
and quality of the live stock on the beet farms. The general effect 
aimed at is the production of more sugar and a more nearly perfect 
stabilization of the beet-sugar industry in the United States. 

The production of sugar from beets in the United States for tlie 
five-year period from 191G to 1920, inclusive, is shown in Table IV. 

SOIL. 

Almost any fertile soil capable of producing good yields of other 
crops will, if properly handled, produce good sugar beets. More de- 
pends upon the physical condition of the soil and the way in which it 
is handled than upon the so-called kind or type of soil. Extremely 
sandjr soil or soil of a decidedly gravelly type is not usually satisfac- 
tory for sugar-beet growing. 

Rair soil. — Generally s})eaking, raw soil or new t-oil does not pro- 
duce as large yields of sugar beets as may be obtained from soil that 
has been under cultivation for some time. In recent years much new 
soil has been brought under cultivation through the use of sugar beets : 
this in a measure has had a tendency to reduce the average yield of 
sugar beets in this country. The argument in favor of growling sugar 
beets on new soil is that this crop will bring the raw soil under control 
and place it in good tilth for other crops more quickly than almost 
an}^ other crop now produced on a large scale on American farms. 
It must be expected, therefore, that so long as new sugar-beet terri- 
tories are being opened in the partiallj' developed sections of the 
United States this factor, tending to keep down the average yield of 
beet roots, will be effective. Also in many of the older sugar-beet 
sections in wdiich the growing of sugar beets is being extended from 
year to year. Avhereby new lands are being brought under cultivation, 
this factor will be more or less effective in holding down the average 
yield. In those sections where sugar beets have l^een grown for many 
years (as, for example, in Utah) and in Avhich a minimum acreage of 
ncAv soil is being used for sugar-beet culture from year to year, the 
average yield of beets per acre is strlikingly above the average for the 
entire country. Usually the grower who utilizes new soil for sugar- 
beet production expects a comparatively low yield and is generally 
satisfied, for the reason stated above, if the crop pays the cost of pro- 
duction. Tho'ugh this is one of the causes of the low average yield of 
beets per acre in this country, it is by no means the only one. 



8 BULLETIN 095, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

Worn Ho'd. — In those sections where sugar beets have been grown 
for a number of years without proper attention to the maintenance 
of soil fertility and an adequate suppl}^ of humus, the yield has been 
reduced. There are few sugar-beet areas in which the soil fertility 
has been maintained or improved to the limit of possibilities. It is 
apparent, therefore, that by proper attention to soil conditions from 
the standpoint of fertility' the average yield of beets per acre may 
be greatly increased. The worn condition of the soil is not peculiar 
to the growing of sugar beets, but occurs in the growing of other farm 
crops, when attention is not given to increasing the supply of avail- 
able plant food in the soil or to maintaining its humus content. 

Qualitij of tJie soil. — Soils vary widely in their original (pialities, 
both physical and chemical. All agricultural soils are supplied in 
vaiying proportions with the necessary plant foods for crop produc- 
tion. Soils that have plant food present in great abundance may 
1)6 said to be rich. They are not fertile, hoAvever, unless these plant 
foods are in soluble form or unless they are rendered soluble as 
rapidly as the various materials are required by the plant in the 
process of growth. The quality of the soil from the standpoint of 
fertility may be greatly improved by i^roper cultivation, crop rota- 
tion, and the addition of humus, as well as by the application of lime 
or other material that will improve its physical condition. At times 
special treatments, such as subsoiling and drainage, are needed to 
make the soil highly productive. 

SUBSOIL. 

In the growing of sugar beets the subsoil is often of equal im- 
portance with the surface soil. 

Ildrdpam. — Frequently the surface soil is underlain by a liardpan 
which it is imi)ossible for tlie beet roots to penetrate. The hardpan 
may be of natural formation or it may be induced by imjjroper till- 
age. If it is close to the surface and of such material that it can not 
bo broken up successfully, the i^rofitable growing of sugar beets is 
impossible. Beets produced under such conditions will be short, w^ith 
a resulting low tonnage, or they will be pushed out of the ground 
and consequently will l)e low in sugar and purity. The nature of 
the hardpan is of considerable importance in this connection. If it 
is of rock and near the surface, little can be done to improve its 
condition for sugar-beet culture, but if it is simply a close and com- 
pact form of soil it may be broken up with a subsoil plow. Some- 
times local areas of extremely hard subsoil are found in the sugar- 
beet sections, and this condition constitutes a limiting factor in the 
production of this cro}) in those areas as a whole or on certain farms 
or fields, depending upon the location and distribution of the hard- 



THE BEET-SUGAR IXDITSTRY IX 1920. 9 

|);in. If the liardpan is level it may hold too much moisture in the 
surface soil, thereby rendering the conditions unfavorable for sugar- 
beet production without artificial drainage. If the hardpan is sev- 
eral feet below the surface and has slope sufficient to carry off the 
excess water, no unfavorable condition will result from it. 

Porous soil. — The reverse of the preceding condition is sometimes 
found in sugar-beet sections in which the subsoil is of such a nature 
and of such a depth that it is very difficult to keep the soil supplied 
with moisture during the growing season. Rain or irrigation water 
passes rapidh^ through porous subsoils, and is soon out of reach 
of the growing plant. If the porous subsoil is very deep and ex- 
tremel}^ porous the ground is unsuited for sugar-beet culture. Fre- 
quently this condition can be relieved somewhat by proper cultiva- 
tion and by supplying tlie surface soil with sufficient humus to en- 
able it to retain enough moisture to produce a fair crop. A heavy 
crop of beets can not be expected on a thin surface soil underlain by 
an extremely porous subsoil. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

'J'he unfavorable topography of an area is frequently the limiting 
factor in the production of sugar beets. Mountainous areas can not 
be utilized for the development of the beet-sugar industry unless 
the valleys are sufficiently large ti\ support a mill or are favorably 
located with reference to an existing mill and are composed of 
sufficient fertile, tillable soil so that beets of proper quality and in 
sufficient quantity can be produced at a reasonable cost. Many small 
valleys, especially in the western ITnited States, might be utilized in 
the growing of sugar beets were it not for the fact that they are 
too small to support a sugar mill and too far from existing mills to 
permit the beet roots to be transported at a sufficiently low cost. 
This problem may be solved by utilizing some practical means of 
drying the beet roots. It is possible to slice and dry the roots, 
thereby reducing the weight of the beets by about 75 per cent without 
changing the quality or lessening the quantity of sugar present. If 
this can be done Avith sufficient rapidity and at a sufficiently low cost 
it will be possible to handle to advantage the product of many small 
valleys and other limited areas. A sugar mill should be able to 
handle not less than 500 tons of beet roots per day of 24 hours, and 
it can not be financially successful under normal conditions unless 
it is supplied with a sufficient quantity of raw material to produce 
a run of approximately 100 days each year. It is desirable that a 
considerable part of the supply be Avithin wagon haul of the mill. 
Any factor which reduces the working capacity or the operating time 
of a sugar mill increases the cost of production of the sugar. The 



10 BULLETIN 995, V. S. DEPAET:MEXT OE AGRICULTURE. 

.small valleys mentioned above are sometimes used to supplement the 
beet crop produced in other sections provided the hauling distance 
by wagon or rail is not too great. 

Hills. — Generally a hilly country is not satisfactory for sugar- 
beet culture, especially if the hills are inclined to wash. The nature 
of the soil of the hills is an important factor in determining whether 
sugar beets can be grown. Hauling heavy loads in a hilly country 
is also a matter of serious consideration. Usually from 3 to 6 tons 
of beets are hauled at each load and if hills must be climbed the 
loads must necessarily be reduced and the cost of hauling conse- 
quenth' increased. This in itself may be a limiting factor in the 
production of sugar l^eets in some otherwise favorable sugar-beet 
areas. 

Level land. — In irrigated countries it is desirable that the surface 
of the soil be sufficiently level to permit uniform irrigation. A per- 
fectly level area. hoAvever, is objectionable because of the difficulty in 
spreading the water over the entire field Avith sufficient rapidity. 
This is especially objectionable in the case of sugar beets, which 
should be watered between the rows only, as shown in Plate I, figure 
2. Again, when the land, especially in irrigated sections, is very 
level and poorly drained alkali frequently appears on the surface 
after repeated irrigations. Sugar beets will tolerate a small amount 
of alkali, but all crops are injured by excessive quantities of alkali 
in the soil, especially when the plants are young and tender. 

Boiling land. — Other things being equal, moderately rolling land 
is more desirable for sugar-beet culture than either extremely hilly 
or verj' level areas. This is especially true in those sections where 
sugar beets are produced under rainfall conditions. In irrigated 
sections rolling land is not so desirable unless the toi)ography of 
the country is such that the area under cultivation can not be irrigated 
readily. Under irrigation conditions it is desirable that the land 
have an even surface with a gentle slope of at least T feet to the 
mile. If the slope is too marked the irrigation water ])asses over it 
too rapidly unless special care is taken in ai)plying the water. 

CLIMATE. 

One of the most important factors in determining the suitability 
of a given area for sugar-beet culture is the climate. Frequently all 
other conditions are favorable, but some climatic factor renders 
sugar-beet growing unprofitable. 

Te?}iperature. — Successful sugar-beet growing has been confined to 
the temperate region in joractically all beet-sugar producing coun- 
tries. Frequently sugar beets will produce a satisfactory tonnage of 
roots in warmer areas, but for some reason they generally are not 
sufficiently rich in sugar to make them profitable in sugar making. 



Bui. 995, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate I. 




Fig. I. — Planting Sugar-Beet Seed with 4-Row Drills, Whereby the 
Seed Should Be Placed at a Uniform Depth, in Straight Rows, and 
IN A Firm Seed Bed. 



^1^ jitei[t...^^i1r«ai,iri jte.,^ .^ . kj 


\ ^. 


*"^sp"-*^-, . T^., :t.f »^T.,y^jirtiii»ii»fa ' iffn^iM 


m% mmmspk i«»^^«i 




fe^^:SJ^:.-.^-:^: 


.A^^^l»<* ' ~tmi^^ "' '"^ a4t ' ,^^5%^^'^'-*-^ •"^^'^HP^? .^t*' ■^^^^B&r''^W '^^ 





Fig. 2. 



-A Field of Sugar Beets, Showing Furrow Irrigation; Each 
Alternate Row Furrowed. 



Bui. 995, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate II. 




Fig. I. — The Smooth Roller, a Useful Implement in Packing the Seed 
Bed before and after Planting. 




Fig. 2. 



-The Corrugated Roller, an Implement Which Breaks the 
Crust and Ridges the Ground against Wind Effect. 



THE BEET-SUGAR IXDUSTRY IX 1020. 11 

This is notably the case in nearly all parts of the southern United 
States. Occasionally areas are found in these warmer zones where 
sugar beets may be grown successfully. This is true in southern 
California and in some parts of Arizona and New^ Mexico, where the 
adverse condition of temperature is overcome by growing the beets 
during the so-called winter months, or at least by getting the plants 
started in the winter or early spring. In some sections the elevation 
and the temperature of the prevailing wind are sufficient to modif}' 
the climate so that sugar beets may be produced with profit. If the 
winter months are too cold for the production of beets and the sum- 
meis too warm for the proper storage of sugar in the roots, a limit- 
ing factor is established which renders profitable sugar-beet growing- 
impossible with any known varieties. Should it become desirable to 
extend the culture of sugar beets into the warmer sections of the 
country, it is possible that suitable varieties could be de^-eloped that 
would be profitable from the standpoint of both tonnage and quality. 

Another important consideration is the fact that high temperatures 
tend to increase spoilage. This may be overcome by passing the beets 
through the mill as rapidly as they are harvested and by harvesting 
the roots as soon as they are matured. Regarding the lower tem- 
peratures, sugar beets have been successfully grown in practically 
all of our Northern States, and several beet-sugar mills are operated 
successfully in Canada. It is apparent, therefore, that the lower 
temperatures do not constitute a limiting factor in sugar-beet grow- 
ing in any of our agricultural sections. It would seem that a short 
growing season would render sugar-beet production unprofitable in 
many northern areas, but the sugar beet readily adapts itself to many 
adverse conditions, and usualh^ in those sections where the growing 
season is short the sugar beet grows rapidly and stores sugar in great 
abundance. In fact, some of our most satisfactory sugar-beet sections 
are to be found in the more northern States. 

During the period just preceding the beet harvest the difference in 
temperature between day and night is one of the important condi- 
tions in the development and storage of sugar in the beet root. The 
young beet plant begins very early to store sugar, but its maximum 
activity along this line is reached in the fall, when in most of the 
beet-growing areas the difference in temperature between night and 
day is most apparent. This difference is apparently one of the con- 
ditions necessary for the proper elaboration and storage of sugar and 
is a limiting factor in the production of sugar-beet roots sufficiently 
rich in sugar to make them profitable for sugar-making purposes. It 
is probable that the absence of cool nights at the end of the growing 
season permits the continued growth and development of the beets, 
thereby using up the sugar in plant growth instead of storing it. 



12 BULLETIN !>95, V. S. DEPAKTMKXT OF AGBICrLTVRE. 

Moistvre. — Moisture is nece.ssary foi' the production of })i'ofital)le 
crops of sugar beets. This reaches tlie soil in the form of rain or 
snow, or it may be applied artificially. Our present sujrar-beet area 
extends over a portion of the humid and the irrigated sections of 
the country, as shown in figure 1. 

In the humid sections the moisture falls largely during the winter 
months, although rains usually are frecjuent during the spring and 
summer. Occasionally some parts of the humid portion of our sugar- 
beet area are visited by heavy rains in the early spring, which greatly 
delay the planting of the beets as well as of other crops. This is 
sometimes folloAved about midsummer by a severe drought, which 
greatly retards crop growth. If these conditions were of frecjuent 
occurrence over wide areas, they would constitute a limiting factor 
in sugar-beet growing in the humid sections; but they have occurred 
in this country only in limited areas and at long intervals. Occa- 
sionally rainfall is large at harvesting time, and sometimes injures 
the sugar-beet crop by producing a second growth of the plants, 
Avhich greatly reduces the sugar content. The extent of this injury 
depends upon the condition of the beets and the duration of the rainy 
period. If this is followed by a period of favorable weather, the 
sugar content will be restored wholly or in part, depending \\\)ow 
the duration and nature of the Aveather. It sometimes happens that 
the beets must be harvested before the lost sugar is fully restored, 
either to prevent the roots from freezing in the ground or to avoid a 
temporary shutdown of the mill. Consequently a second growth due 
to late rains may cause serious losses to the grower and to the sugar 
com})any. A season in the humid region in Avhich the rainfall is just 
sufficient to maintain a steady growth until near harvesting time. 
folloAved by continuous fair weather accompanied by cool nights and 
warm days, makes conditions most faA'orable for the production of 
sugar beets so far as the humid area is concerned. These conditions 
prevail generally in the humid sections where sugar beets are grown. 

In the irrigated sugar-beet areas usually less than 20 inches of 
moisture falls during the entire year, and frequently many of the 
showers are so light that they are of no practical benefit in crop 
production. Sugar-beet growers in those sections depend largely 
upon irrigation. Frequently the showers that fall in irrigated areas 
are detrimental rather than helpful in the production of sugar beets, 
since they frequently cause the soil to crust. If this crusting occurs 
shortly after the seed is sown the young plants have great difficulty 
in breaking through to the light, with the result that the stands are 
very seriously injured and replantings are necessary. If the showers 
occur soon after the beets are u]) and the ground crusts around the 
young plants the air is cut off from the roots and groAvth is inter- 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN 1920, 13 

fered with. This may sometimes be remedied by prompt cultivation, 
althouoh the plants are often so firmly embedded in the crust that 
cultivation is difficult without serious in]\uy to the plants. Some- 
times a moderately heavy roller of one of the types shown in Plate 
II will produce the desired result in breaking the crust. In irrigated 
sections every effort should be made to retain the fall or winter 
moisture in the soil, and if the ground is dry in the fall, irrigation 
is generally desirable. The soil should be sufficiently moist when 
the seed is planted to produce prompt and complete germination, 
and there should be sufficient moisture in the soil to maintain a 
steady growth for several weeks. As soon as the plants indicate that 
they are suffering from lack of moisture they should be irrigated. 
When beets wilt during the day and fail to revive at night they 
should be watered without delay. Usually from one to three irriga- 
tions during the growing season are sufficient to produce a crop in 
most of the irrigated sections where sugar beets are grown. When 
beets are irrigated the soil should be thoroughly wet, and every effort 
should then be made to retain the moisture as long as possible by 
frequent cultivation. 

Sunshine. — ^The third element of climate which has a marked 
effect on the quality of sugar beets is light, over which man has little 
control except in the selection of locality. It is generally believed 
that direct sunshine is an important factor in the production and 
storage of sugar in the beet: observation indicates, however, that 
diffused light is almost, if not quite, as effective in producing and 
storing sugar. The importance of light should not be overlooked. 
hoAvever, since Avithout it the leaves could not manufacture sugar. 
Beet sugar is all made in the beet leaves by the action of light upon 
the leaf green when moisture and carbonic-acicl gas are present. 
Without light this action in the leaf can not take place, no matter 
how favorable may be all other conditions for groAvth and sugar 
production. 

SUGAR-BEET STAND. 

One of the most im,portant factors in sugar-beet production is the 
stand at harvest time. A perfect stand of beets Avith the usual Aviclth 
of roAV and the proper distance of spacing would consist of 25,000 
to 40,000 plants to the acre. If each of the beet roots harvested 
weighed 1 pound, which is below the average in most fields, there 
should be 12^ to 20 tons of roots per acre. As a matter of fact the 
sugar-beet stands are only from 50 per cent to 80 per cent perfect, 
and the average yield of beets in the XTnited States is about 10 tons. 
Absolutely perfect stands are not to be expected, considering the 
many factors influencing the stand and the large area annually in 
sugar l)eets. noAV approximately 1,000,000 acres. HoAvever, there 
should be no difficulty in greatly raising the percentage of stand. 



14 BULLETIN i>95, V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AdRIC'l'LTURE. 

thereby increasing the yieUl per aci'e. Careful attention Has been 
given to *the factor of stand during the last few years, and by 
actual count in many fields in all parts of the sugar-beet area it 
has been found that the stand at harvest time very frequently is 
as low as 50 or 60 per cent of a possible 100. It is very seldom that 
a field has more than 80 per cent of a perfect stand at harvest time. 
Many factors influence the stand, some of the most important of 
which have been carefully studied and are discussed below. 

Seed. — The quality of the seed is one of the primary factors in 
producing a stand of sugar beets. All beet seed im])orted from 
foreign countries must be up to a certain standard of germination 
and purity; otlierwise it need not be accepted. As a rule sugar-beet 
seed stored under proper conditions will retain its vitality six or 
seven years. Usually we have no means of knowing the age of the 
seed that is shipped to this country, and it is entirely possible that 
seed imported is sometimes near the limit of its vitality and if held 
over for one or two years may deteriorate in germinating power. It 
is customary for sugar companies to retain a part of their seed from 
year to year to provide for replanting or to take care of belated con- 
tracts. All reserved seed, as well as new lots, should be carefully 
tested for germination before it is given to the growers. If the 
germination of the seed is too low to produce a good stand of beets 
at the usual rate of planting, either the seetl should be discarded 
entirely or a sufficient quantity of seed should be planted to insure a 
good stand. 

With American grown sugar-beet seed no difficulty should be met 
in ascertaining its age : in fact, all American groAvn sugar-beet seed 
is utilized Avithin a year or two following its production, so that at 
present there is no danger of the home-grown seed losing its germi- 
nating power before it is planted. In general, domestic sugar-beet 
seed shows a higher germinabilitv than is shown by the imported 
seed. All American seed. hoAvever, should be tested carefully for 
germination, because certain conditions during the process of growth, 
development, and storage of the seed may render it Aveak or non- 
germinable. One of the most important factors affecting beet seed 
adA'ersely during its deAelopment is the false chinch bug. Avhich occa- 
sionally appears in some beet-seed growing localities. This insect 
infests the beet-seed balls and the tender leaA^es and stalks and by 
sucking the juice from the plant may preA^ent the seed from develop- 
ing and maturing.^ The health and Antality of the beet" root when 
planted for seed is another important factor influencing the quality 
of the seed. Beet roots that have been Aveakened by Phoma rot or 
other diseases of the root will sometimes produce seed stalks, and fre- 

' For control iiiPiisuros. sop p. 49. 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IX 1920, 15 

queiitly the seed balls will begin to form; but the plants often die 
before the seed is mature. If the seed stalks bearing the nonmatured 
seed are harvested and the seed balls from these stalks are mixed 
with the matured seed, it is evident that the percentage of germina- 
tion will be materially reduced. Hot dry winds at the time the seed 
is forming interfere with pollination and tend to prevent the seed 
balls from filling and producing viable seed. 

The water supply during the growing season has also a marked 
effect upon the quality of the seed. If the supply of moisture in the 
soil is too low, especially at the time when the seed is forming, the 
seed balls will not fill, and the yield of viable seed will be reduced. 
In the humid sections where seed is grown we have no direct con- 
trol over the moisture supply except in so far as we are able to retain 
the moisture in the soil by proper methods of cultivation. In the 
irrigated sections, wherever water is constantly available, the mois- 
ture supply is under the control of the grower. It is not advisable 
to undertake the growing of sugar-beet seed in those irrigated sec- 
tions where an abundant supply of water is not available for irri- 
gation when needed. 

The seed heel. — The condition of the seed bed as a factor influenc- 
ing sugar-beet stands is of an importance equal to the quality of the 
seed. In general, the seed bed should be firm and moist and capable 
of retaining its moisture under all conditions for a considerable 
period. To produce such a seed bed the soil should be thoroughly 
supplied with humus. The ground should be plowed in the fall, in 
order that it may catch the winter rain and snow, and the surface 
should be harrowed as early as possible in the spring, so as to retain 
as fully as possible the moisture in the soil at that time. The seed 
bed should be worked from time to time to destroy the weeds that 
may appear, as they rob the soil of moisture as well as of fertility. 
Just before planting, the seed bed should be thoroughly worked down 
iind firmed, so that the surface will be uniform in texture and in 
firmness. If the bed is not uniformly firmed, the drill wheels will 
Fink deeper in some places in the field than in others, with the result 
that some of the seed will be so deeply covered that the plants will 
not reach the light, or they will be more or less retarded, producing 
ii spotted or uneven stand. The seed should be drilled into the firm 
seed bed, so that it will be constantly in contact with the moist soil. 
(PL I, fig. 1.) Poor stands are probably produced oftener by too 
deep and uneven planting, due to a poorly prepared seed bed, than 
by any other cause. 

Date of planting. — No specific date for planting beet seed can be 
given, since much depends upon local soil and weather conditions. 
In general, however, it has been found that the soil should be warm 



16 BULLETIN !»U5, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTURE. 

and uniformly moist before the seed is planted, as beet seed will not 
trerminate satisfactorily in a cold or unevenly moistened bed. A 
few of the str()n<rer plants may come up in the moist spots if the 
seed bed is not too cold, but the stand Avill be uneven and far from 
perfect. It is advisable, therefore, to see that the soil conditions are 
rigfht before plantinjr. Generally there is a plantino; period of se\'- 
eral weeks during which the seed may be placed in the p;roun(l 
with good results. It has l)een observed that late plantings will 
frequently give better results than very early plantings. It is not 
advisable to plant in soil that is too dry or too wet. If the soil 
is too dry and irrigating Avater is available it is best to irrigate 
before planting; if irrigating water is not available and the indi- 
cations are favorable for rain it Avill usually be advisable to wait 
until rain has fallen. If the ground is too wet when the seed is 
l)lanted. there is danger of the seed rotting and thereby failing to 
produce a stand. 

Winds. — In some localities wind is an important factor affecting 
the stand of sugar beets. Aside from the effect of wind upon seed 
formation, as previously noted, wind is effective in two vs-ays in 
injuring the stand of beets. If the soil is sandy, strong winds may 
shift the sand so that the seed is covered too deeply and the young 
l^lants can not get through to the light, and if the beet seedlings 
are up the wind may carry the fine particles of sand against the 
tender plants with such force that they are destroyed or severely 
injured. This frequently occurs in level areas where strong winds 
prevail in early spring. The destructiA'e effect of winds may be 
overcome, in part at least, by drilling in the seed at right angles to 
the direction of the prevailing winds and by ridging the ground 
slightly between the rows. 

Crust. — In many sugar-beet localities the soil has a strong tendency 
to crust if it is moisteired and then quickly dried. Showers some- 
times fall shortly after the seed is planted, followed by sunshine and 
drying winds, and in cases where the soil has a tendency to liake a 
very hard crust will frequently form, which will either prevent the 
young plants from coming through to the light or will cause a Aery 
uneven stand. The crust formed Avill vary in thickness. de])ending 
upon the nature of the soil and the conditions of the AA^eather. If the 
crust is thin and the young plants have not been caught in it, a light 
harroAv or a roller AA'ill sometimes put the surface in shape so that the 
plants AA'ill break through. If the crust is thick and the plants are 
embedded in it, there is frequently no remedy except to harroAv the 
ground and re])lant. A crust may be ])revented or greatly retarded 
by an application of lime before or immediately after ploAving and 
by keeping the ground Avell supplied Avith humus. 



Bui. 995, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



PLATE III. 







Fig. I.— Blocking and Thinning Sugar Beets, an Operation That Must Be 
Performed by Hand as Soon as the Beets are Large Enough. 




Fig. 2. — Flooding a Field of Sugar Beets, a Poor Method of Irrigation, 
Since It Reduces the Stand of Beets, Wastes the Water, and Injures 
THE Soil. 



5ul, 995, U. 5^ Dept. of Agriculture 



Plate IV. 




l'f':''-^m£^^:. 



Fig. 



I. — A 4-Row Cultivator, Which if Not Carefully Used May 
Destroy a Good Stand of Beets. 









* >V,ir' 




Fig. 2.— a Field of Sugar Beets Whose Tops Completely Cover the 
Ground, at Which Stage the Crop May Be Laid By. 



THE BEET-SUGAR IXDUSTKY IX 11>20. 17 

Blockhuj and thhinhuj. — A o-oocl stand of beets very largely de- 
pends upon careful bloc'kin<>- and thinning. Blocking consists in cut- 
ting out a i)ortion of tlie beets by means of a hoe or other suitable 
implement (PL III, fig. 1), usually operated at right angles to the 
row, leaving the remaining beets in tufts from 8 to 10 inches apart. 
This should be done Avhile the beets are very small. It is very easy 
for tlie careless workman to strike the row at an angle, making the 
distance between the tufts very much greater. Frequently the tufts 
themselves are destroyed by careless use of the blocking im])lement. 
When the plants ha\e been destroyed, practically nothing can be done 
to replace them. Transplanting sugar beets to the vacant spaces has 
not been found practicable on a commercial scale. 

The thinning is done l\y hand and consists in pulling out from each 
tuft all the plants l)ut one. Careless workers will often destroy or 
pull out all the plants from the tuft, thereby reducing the stand. 
Frequently in thinning the dirt is removed so that the young plants 
ai'e left with their tender stems subject to the influence of the rays 
of the sun, the heat of which sometimes destroys them. The dirt 
should be brought close around the plant that is left so as to protect it 
from injury. 

Cultirathuj. — Many otherAvise good stands of beets are seriously 
injured by the cultivators either covering the young plants with dirt 
or tearing them out. This injury is frequently due to carelessness and 
sometimes to accident. Sugar beets are usually cultivated by means 
of a 4-row cultivator (PI. IV, fig. 1). If by accident or otherwise 
the cultivator is permitted to shift so that several plants are injured 
or destroyed in one row, the same number of plants will be injured or 
removed from each of the four rows. This is a common cause of poor 
stands in many fields. A few^ beets cut out of four rows here and' 
there in the field each time the beets are cultivated will have a marked 
effect upon the final stand and will greatly reduce the yield of beets 
liarvested. Success in operating the cultivator depends upon the con- 
dition of the seed bed, upon the animals, the driver, and the adjust- 
ment of the imi)lement. B}^ careful attention on the part of the driver, 
nearly all the injury due to cultivation may be avoided, provided the 
seed l)ed is in good condition and the drill rows are straight. When 
the beet leaves cover the ground, as shown in Plate TV, figure 2, the 
crop is laid by, and no further Avork is done until the harvest begins. 

DUeai^es (iffectin<i the stand. — One of the common agencies affect- 
ing the stand of sugar beets is disease. Xearly all sugar-beet dis- 
eases are due to parasitic organisms. One of the most serious affect- 
ing the stand" is the damjiing-off' of the young beets. Later in the 
season root-rot does considerable damage in some localities. Leaf- 
56830°— BuU. 90.">— 21 2 



18 BULLETIN 995, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

spot frequently injures the beets and reduces the tonnage, but does 
not often destroy the stand. All fungous diseases may be greatly re- 
duced or entirely controlled by proper cultural methods, including 
the proper rotation of crops. 

There are several diseases which sometimes destroy entire fields. 
The disease known as curly-top belongs to this group. This is 
an obscure disease, the cause of Avhich is not definitely known. The 
Office of Sugar-Plant Investigations in cooperation with the Bureau 
of Entomology is making an earnest effort to determine the cause 
of this disease and to find a practical means for its control. Another 
serious pest affecting the stand of beets is the sugar-beet nematode. 
The nematode first appears in a field here and there, destroying a few 
beets. From year to year this area becomes more marked if beets are 
grown continuously in the infested fields, and eventually the wdiole 
field is affected ancl the crop is worthless. The Office of Sugar-Plant 
Investigations in cooperation with the Office of Agricultural Tech- 
nology is carrying on extensive experiments in all areas infested with 
the sugar-beet nematode, with a view to controlling this pest in a 
practical wa}-, so that profitable crops of beets may be grown in 
spite of the nematode. For a further discussion of sugar-beet dis- 
eases, see pages 45 to 48. 

■ Insects affecting stand. — ^^There are several insects affecting the 
stand of sugar beets. The most common during the earl}^ stages of 
the beet are wireworms and cutworms. The latter usually cut off the 
root at some distance below the ground. As a result the plant dies 
or produces a \qyj short root. Sometimes the cutworms destroy 
beets here and there in the field, but when the pests are numerous the 
entire stand may be destroyed, necessitating replanting in order to 
produce a crop. White grubs also are serious pests. They are the 
larvae of the May and June beetles. They occur frequently in sod 
ground and are to be expected in beet fields where beets follow sod. 
Later in the season army worms and related pests frequently do con- 
siderable damage. Even if the stand is not seriously injured by the 
pests the tonnage is greatly reduced. For a further discussion of in- 
sect pests affecting sugar beets, see pages. 48 and 49. For a list of 
publications relating to sugar-beet diseases and insects, see pages 
57 and 58. 

Rodents affecting stand. — In some localities ground squirrels and 
other rodents are a serious menace to the sugar-beet crop. They feed 
upon the beets from the seedling to the mature stage, but do most of 
their damage when the beets are about half grown. They sometimes 
make serious inroads upon the stand of beets. These pests may be 
destroj^ed by the use of poison or by trapping. 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN 11)20. 19 

WATER. 

Excess or deficiency of water may be a limiting factor in sugar-beet 
l^rocliiction. 

PrecipitafUm.. — In the humid sections of the sugar-beet area beet 
growers depend upon rainfall and snow for the necessary supply of 
soil moisture. Usually the snow and the spring rains put the soil 
in good condition for planting, and the summer rains keep the crops 
groAving until the end of the season. Whether the precipitation will 
furnish an excessive amount of moisture for the soil will depend upon 
soil conditions, as well as ujjon the amount of precipitation. For 
uniform soil conditions, however, the right amount of precipitation 
is of vital importance in the growing of sugar beets. Excessive pre- 
cipitation may be detrimental in two ways: (1) By preventing a 
]iroper preparation of the seed bed, and (2) by saturating the soil 
to' such an extent that the air is excluded from the plant roots and 
the proper growth of the plants thereby prevented. A deficiency of 
precipitation may make a proper preparation of the seed bed im- 
possible, or it may put the seed bed in such condition that the ger- 
mination of the seed or the subsequent growth of the plants may be 
impaired. Excessive precipitation may be remedied under certain 
conditions by a proper system of drainage. (See pages 22 to 24.) 
The lack of moisture may be remedied in part (1) by putting the 
proposed seed bed in a proper condition to catch and hold the fall 
and "winter moisture; (2) by subsequent cultivation whereby a mulch 
is formed on the surface of the field, thereby retarding evaporation ; 
and (3) by supplying the soil with a suitable amount of humus. 

Irrigation. — The use of irrigating water is theoretically simple, 
but its practical application is very complex, calling for a knowledge 
of plant growth and soil requirements based upon experience and 
good judgment. It is one of the most important factors in sugar- 
beet production in the semiarid regions. Good crops are sometimes 
ruined by a lack of knoAvledge of the water requirements of plants 
and by want of experience in applying the water. 

There are four sources from which irrigating water may be ob- 
tained, namely, from reservoirs, direct from streams, from flowing- 
wells, and by pumping. A reservoir is a storage place in which an 
excess of water due to melting snows or from other sources may be 
stored for future use. Stream irrigation implies either a continuous 
or an intermittent flow of Avater in a river bed which may be drawn 
upon when needed. Pump irrigation is practicable when the sub- 
surface water is present in sufficient quantity and at a depth shallow 
enough to supply the necessary water for crop production at a reason- 
able cost. 



20 BULLETIN 995, V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE. 

IJeservoirs are either individual storage places which supply mois- 
ture for a single farm or part of a farm or they may be community 
enterprises operated bj^ the landowners or by an irrigating company. 
Community reservoirs are sometimes filled directly from permanent 
streams and sometimes they are filled during freshets, while indi- 
vidual reservoirs are frequently supplied with water by pumping; 
in this manner pump irrigation may be direct or indirect. By 
direct irrigation the water is pumped into the ditches or laterals and 
spread at once upon the fields ; by indirect irrigation the water is 
pumped into a reservoir, from Avhich it is distributed upon the field 
when needed. There are difficulties to overcome in each of the 
methods of irrigation mentioned. In utilizing w^ater from a com- 
munity reservoir it is necessary for all farmers under the ditch from 
this reservoir to use the water at a time agreed upon by the majority 
of users, regardless of the requirements of all the crops to be watered. 
In case the water is not used by one or more farmers when the reser- 
voir is open, they must await the next opening of the reservoir, which 
may be several weeks later, regardless of the injury that the lack of 
water may cause to their crops. The reservoir can not be opened 
at the will and pleasure of each water user. To do so would cause a 
great waste of water, which is often of greater value than the land 
itself. 

Water from a. community reservoir is usually prorated and meas- 
ured to each farmer so that he is able to obtain only his share ; like- 
Avise, in using water from a stream in which the suj)ply is limited it is 
prorated and measured, and irrigation must cease when the allotted 
number of acre-feet have passed through the gate, regardless of the 
crop requirements. If the pumping plant is a community plant, 
practically the same regulations obtain as in the case of the com- 
munity reservoir: that is, each farmer entitled to water must use 
it at a definite time agreed upon by a majority of the users or for- 
feit his right to the use of the water until the next irrigating period 
arrives. It would, of course, be too expensive to operate the pumping 
plant for a limited number of farmers Avhose crops were not in need 
of water at the regular irrigating period. The individual plant is 
usually more satisfactory from the standpoint that water may be 
available wdien needed. The expense, however, of installing and 
operating an individual pumping plant has frequently been beyond 
the farmer's means. It is apparent, therefore, that the water supply 
for irrigating a sufficiently large area to insure the groAving of the 
necessary acreage of beets to enable a sugar mill to operate success- 
fully is frequently the deciding factor in the growing of sugar beets. 
The problem of water supply should be considered carefully before 
any large sum of money is expended in the erection of a sugar mill 



Bui. 995. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate V. 




Fig. I. — A Sledding Implement Used in Smoothing Irrigating Furrows in 
Sugar-Beet Fields, Being Sometimes Helpful in Distributing the 
Water. 







at Used in Leveling the Seed Bed for Sugar Beets. 



Bui. 995, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate VI. 




Fig. I. — Preparing Land for Sugar Beets by Plowing under a Crop of 
Alfalfa, One of the Best Green Fertilizers When Thus Treated in 
the Fall. 




Fig. 2.- 



-Hauling Sugar Beets to the Mill, the Cost Being Greatly 
Reduced by Good Roads. 



THE BKET-SIT(;AR industry IX 1920. 21 

in ill!}' locality in which irrigation is necessary to ^row satisfactory 
crops of heets. 

If the water supply in a <2;iven area will insiii'e the fi^rowing of 
only 5,000 acres of su^ar beets annually under proper crop rc^tation 
and under other conditions fayorable to sugar-beet culture, it would 
not be adA'isable to build a mill having a capacity greater than 500 
tons per day. It frequently happens that a large part of the water 
used for irrigating purposes is wasted either by badly constructed 
ditches or by improper methods of irrigating. Ditches are improperly 
constructed when they allow an excessive amount of seepage or when 
they are so easily clogged tiiat they overflow. Under the methods in 
practice it is sometimes imi)ossible to avoid using water on certain 
fields when it is really not needed. Occasionally the water is turned 
on from the reservoir, or the community pumping plant is put in 
oi)eration before the water is actually needed by any of the growers. 
Much can be done to delay the first irrigation and to extend the time 
between irrigations by proper preparation of the seed bed and by 
proper cultivation. In most irrigated areas tlie actual Avater supply 
is limited, and in order to meet the crop retjuirements as nearly as 
jjracticable there should be no waste of water beyond the unavoid- 

^ able losses due to seepage and evaporation. 

**"' Methods of irri<jatio)i. — There are two general metjiods of irrigat- 
ing sugar beets, namely, by flooding, as shown in Plate III, figure 2, 
and by the furrow method, as shown in Plate I, figure 2. The first 
method is generally detrimental to sugar-beet production and is 
wasteful of water. In flooding the entire surface of the field more 
water is used than would be used by the furrow method. There is a 
much larger surface for evaporation. The air supply is cut off from 
the beet roots, and frequently as the ground begins to dry after a 
flood irrigation the surface forms a crust which further cuts off the 
air supply, promotes evai)oration, and incases the beet plants in such 
a way that it is very difficult to cultivate or othei'wise Avork the plants 
without doing some damage. It is argued that flood irrigation is 
necessary in certain sections where the sloi)e of the land is slight, 
but it is seldom the case that the slope is not sufficient to enable the 
careful irrigator to use the furrow method, especially if proper lat- 
erals and cross ditches are used. In using the furrow method of 
irrigation a furrow is made between the rows of beets or between each 
alternate row and the next, as shown in Plate I, figure 2, and fre- 
quently this furrow is smooth or sledded out by an implement, as 

■ shown in Plate V. figure 1, which is. drawn lengthwise through the 
furrow% leaving its surface smooth and well adapted to carrying the 
water. The water should be turned into these furrows, should be 
confined to them entirely without flooding the surface around the 



22 BULLETIN 995, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

beets, and should be allowed to flow until the soil is thoroughly wet. 
The head of water Avhich is used in furrow irrigation must not be too 
large, as shoAvn in Plate III, figure 2. The size of the head must be 
governed by the slope of the land, by the nature of the soil, and by 
the number of furrows that can be irrigated at one time. 

Levelhuj. — In order that irrigation may be properly done the field 
must be carefully leveled, as shown in Plate V, figure 2. This is 
frequently a limiting factor on many fields and occasionally in an 
entire community. The lack of success in at least one sugar-beet 
area is due primarily to the failure of the growers to level the ground 
properly. It usually requires several years to level a field properly 
for furrow irrigation, for the reason that the depressions that are 
filled during the first eifort to level the field will usually settle and 
still leave slight depressions, while the higher points from which 
the soil was removed to make the fills do not settle, and an uneven- 
ness results. If the leveling process is repeated for two or three years 
the ground generally becomes sufficiently level to admit of furrow 
irrigation. If the ground is very uneven the Fresno scraper may 
often be used to good advantage. In some localities the surface of 
the soil is by nature sufficiently level to admit of proper irrigation. 
In other sections the slopes are sufficiently long and the source of 
the water supply so high that it can be carried to the highest point 
and distributed over large areas without the expense of leveling the 
ground. In the process, of leveling, the better surface soil is removed 
from the high point and carried to the depression. It is then neces- 
sary to improve the areas from which the better soil has been re- 
moved, either by the use of stable manure or a leguminous crop. 
Sometimes several years are required to make a leveled field uniform 
in fertility as well as in firmness of surface. 

A very coarse soil, especially if it has a porous subsoil, is irri- 
gated with great difficulty, and frequently much time and money 
are wasted in leveling such lands, as they are not adapted to the 
growing of sugar beets or other intensively cultivated crops. 

DRAINAGE. 

Drainage has an important bearing upon sugar-beet growing in 
general, as well as upon the production of other farm crops. Large 
areas of land that are now too wet to be cultivated could be put under 
tillage and Avould produce good crops if properly drained. Other 
large areas now under cultivation are in many instances becoming 
water-logged, especially in the irrigated sections, and will soon be 
imfit for crop production unless they are drained. In some instances 
the further expansion of the sugar-beet acreage is limited to the 
brinffinw in of areas through drainage. 



THK BEKT-SUGAR INDUftTKV IX 11*20. 23 

Naturdl drainaiH'. — Fortunately a large i)art of the tillable area 
now devoted to sug-ar-beet culture has a natural drainage. This 
may l)e due to one of several conditicms. 

(1) The surface of the ground may be sufficiently rolling to drain 
naturally. In some instances the slope is so great that the water 
passes off too quickly, and consequently the land is unproductive 
because of excessive surface drainage. 

(2) Certain areas have a natural drainage (hie to a sloping sub- 
soil. As previously noted, some areas have a subsoil that is more or 
less impervious to water. If the impervious subsoil is sloping, the 
water falling upon the surface soil will pass through to the subsoil 
and gradually disappear along the sloping sulisoil. In this case 
natural drainage is satisfactory and needs no particular attention, 
provided the impervious subsoil is not too near or too far from the 
surface, and provided further that there is a natural outlet, so that 
the water will not eventually back up along the slope or incline of the 
subsoil. 

(8) The natural drainage accomplished by means of a porous sub- 
soil has been already noted. There are localities in which the sub- 
soil is so porous that it is almost impossible to hold sufficient water 
in the seed and root beds to produce a cro]) of beets. There are 
therefore localities in which the natural drainage is of such a nature, 
either through a lack of moisture or through an excess of water, 
that natural drainage constitutes a limiting factor in sugar-beet 
production. 

(4) On the other hand, there are areas and fields in which arti- 
ficial drainage must be practiced in order to put the soil in condition 
for sugar-beet production. Several systems of artificial drainage 
are in general use. 

The open ditch. — An open ditch constitutes one of the methods 
by which this limiting factor of excessive moisture is removed. It 
is the least expensive method of providing artificial drainage, espe- 
cially from the standpoint of labor and material involved. How- 
ever, considerable tillable ground is lost through the construction of 
open ditches. This loss is due to the space occupied by the ditch 
and by the ditch bank. In constructing an open ditch these points 
should be kept in mind, so that the least possible loss of tillable area 
will result. The open ditch constitutes a barrier which can not 
readily be crossed in the usual farming operations. It is advisable, 
wherever practicable, to construct these ditches along the edges 
of the field, along roadsides, and in places where they will inter- 
fere least with the farming operations. kSometimes it is necessary 
to cross the fields with ditches in order to drain the soil properly; 
in such cases tlie fields and ditches should be so laid out that the 



24 BULLETIN 995, TJ. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

ditches will run lengthwise of the field, thereby aAoiding the crossing 
of the ditch in the usual farming operations. The size and depth of 
the open ditch will depend upon the length and fall of the ditch^ 
the location of the subsoil, the amount of water to be carried, and 
the position of the outlet. The drainage ditch should always be deep 
enough to prevent any interference of the water table Avith the crop 
to be grown. 

The hlind ditch. — The most satisfactory method of artificial drain- 
age is the blind ditch. In the construction of this ditch tile is used 
most commonly. Many fields that otherwise Avould not yield profit- 
able crops have been reclaimed by the blind ditch. These ditches 
should be laid out very carefully with reference to direction, depth, 
and slope, so that the entire area under consideration will be drained 
thoroughly. The size of the tile is A'ery important. Tiles that are 
too small must never be used. This is false economy, and it fre- 
quently results in added expense in that the small tiles must be taken 
up and replaced with larger ones. The tile should be large enough to 
carry off the water quickly in times of excessive rainfall, deep enough 
not to be disturbed by the plow or other implements, and laid so 
carefully that the ends will fit against each other evenly and a gentle 
and continuous fall should be provided, without depression or ele- 
vation. The outlet of the blind ditch should be kept oi)en, that the 
water may flow freely. 

SEEPAGE. 

Seepage is closely related to drainage. Many fields or areas that 
otherwise might be profitable for crop production are rendered use- 
less by seepage. This is especially noticeable in those areas where 
irrigation is practiced. Seepage is detrimental to the soil in several 
ways: (1) As a loss of water, especially in cases where water has been 
stored for irrigating purposes, and (2) through a loss of the use of 
the land, either because the soil is too wet for crop production or be- 
cause of the accumulation of soluble minerals which are brought to 
the surface through seepage. The injurious soluble minerals usually 
are know^n as alkali. 

Seepage frorn streams. — Some streams are so located naturally 
that a portion of the water seeps into the adjacent soil, form- 
ing marshes or waste places due to excessive moisture; this is 
especially true Avhere the fields adjacent to the stream are low, 
level, or underlain with an impervious subsoil. The nature of the 
bank of the stream is of importance in this connection. If the 
overflow at flood time is prevented by the construction of dikes the 
land may be made productive by drainage. Usually these marsh- 
lands when drained are very fertile and produce good crops, though 
they are not always the best for sugar-beet production, since they 
sometimes produce large roots low in sugar. 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN 1920. 25 

Seepage fr'om ditches. — It is sometimes necessary to construct 
irrigating ditches higher than the surrounding area, to carry the 
water across low phices or to carry it long distances. It is very 
common for the water to seep through the ditch bank in such cases 
and to. saturate the surrounding fields, especially if the soil in those 
fields has a high water-holding capacit3^ Ditches constructed of 
clay or other close-textured material allow less seepage than ditches 
constructed of sandy or other porous material. In the case of 
sandy ditches the holding capacity may be increased very greatly 
b}' oiling the surface of the ditch Avith crude oil ; this can be applied 
economically only in those localities not far removed from the source 
of oil supply. Where the oil is available it may be spread over 
the inner surface of the ditch when the ditch is empty and should 
be allowed to soak into the soil before the water is turned into the 
ditch. A second or even a third application of the oil will improve 
the condition of the ditch. Ditches treated in this manner will 
carry water with almost no seepage, and when the work is done 
properly the oiled surface Avill frequently last for several years. 
If the oil is spread over the ditch bank, Aveed groAvth Avill be pre- 
vented, or at least decidedly retarded. There is always some seep- 
age from the ordinary untreated earth ditch, and the amount of 
damage done by this seepage will depend upon the nature of the 
ditch and the soil of the adjacent fields. The seeped areas may 
sometimes be rendered tillable by drainage. 

Seepage from earth reservoirs. — The area of land damaged by 
seepage from earth reserA^oirs is less than that from ditches, but 
the total is considerable and is usually progressiA^e ; that is, a small 
area first appears to be water-logged and this gradually increases 
from year to year until large areas involving fields and sometimes 
entire farms are destroyed. Seepage from reservoirs depends upon 
the construction of the reservoir and \\\ion the nature of the sur- 
rounding country. Reservoirs are sometimes constructed in moun- 
tainous areas for the purpose of catching and storing flood waters 
due to melting snows. Generally the location of these reservoirs is 
such that no tillable soil is injured through seepage; the only loss 
in such cases is caused by the quantity of water Avhich seeps away 
and becomes unavailable for irrigation purposes. In other instances 
reserA^oirs are constructed of cement, which is nearly impervious to 
Avater, and consequently little or no loss from seepage results. The 
serious injurA^ due to seepage from reservoirs takes place in those 
localities in which the reservoirs are constructed entirely or in part 
of earth and in which the surrounding country is composed of tillable 
land; in such "cases the loss due to seepage is sometimes of con- 
siderable importance. 

Alkali — As already indicated, one of the serious results of seepage 
is the accumulation of alkali in the surface soil. In such cases 



26 BULLETIISr 99o, V. S, UEPAETMEXT OF AGKICULTITRE. 

there must be more or less alkali dissolved in the water. As this 
\Yater rises to the surface of the soil it brings with it the salts held 
in solution. After the water evaporates from the surface of the 
soil the alkali remains, and it may eventually accumulate to such an 
extent that crop production is greatly reduced or rendered entirely 
impossible. This condition is a limiting factor in the production 
of sugar beets as well as other crops in certain portions of the sugar- 
beet area. The sugar beet is one of the most alkali resistant of our 
farm crops, l)ut even with this plant the limit of endurance is some- 
times reached or exceeded, and beet growing becomes unprofitable. 
Alkali in the seed bed is especially troublesome, since the young- 
plants are very tender and therefore susceptible to this and other 
adverse conditions. If the beet plants are well started before the 
alkali accumulates in the surface soil, much less damage will be done, 
as the subsequent growth of the plants is less affected b}^ the same 
amount of alkali. The alkalinity of a soil may be reduced by the use 
of irrigation water, provided the irrigating water is comparatively 
free fi'om alkali and a satisfactory drainage system has been 
established. 

SOIL FERTILITY. 

Elements of plant growth. — By fertility is meant the ability of 
the soil to produce a good crop. The difference between a rich soil 
and a fertile soil should be kept in mind — that is, a. soil is rich if it 
contains a c(msiderable quantity of each of the elements required by 
the plant in the process of growth. T^nless, however, these elements 
are available to the plant and the physical conditions of the soil are 
such as to promote plant growth, the soil cannot be said to-be fer- 
tile. If a single element required by the plant, though present, is 
not soluble, this condition will render the soil infertile. In order 
that an element may be available to the plant, it must be soluble, an(| 
it must dissolve rapidly enough to supply the plant Avitli tliat i)ar- 
ticular element as rapidly as the plant reijuires it. Certain elements 
are alw^ays available when present; other elements must be acted 
upon by certain substances under certain conditions in order to 
become available or soluble. It is apparent, therefore, that fertility 
is one of the limiting factors in the production of sugar beets as well 
as of other crops. 

The sugar beet requires the same elements of plant food that are 
required by other field crops, but in slightly different proportions: 
for example, a 10-ton crop of sugar beets (which is approximately 
the average yield for the Ignited States) Avill require about 30 pounds 
of nitrogen, 14 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 71 pounds of potash : 
a wheat crop, yielding 20 bushels per acre, will require 41 pounds of 
nitrogen, about 13 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 17 pounds of 



THE BEET-SUGAR IK^DrSTKY IN" 1920. 27 

potash : a corn crop, yielding 40 bushels of ears to the acre, will 
require 56 pounds of nitrogen, 21 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 
23 pounds of potash ; clover yielding 2 tons of hay per acre requires 
83 pounds of nitrogen, 18 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 88 pounds' 
of potash. These elements are required b}' all field crops, and, in 
addition to these, seven other elements are required in much smaller 
(pumtities. These elements are always present in agricultural soils 
in larger or smaller quantities. The two questions, therefore, with 
regard to soil fertility, so far as the composition of the soil is con- 
cerned, are whether the required elements are present in sufficient 
quantity to produce the desired crop and whether the elements are 
available or soluble in such quantity and at such time during the 
growing season as the plant requires. In addition to the presence 
of these elements, as indicated above, the soil must be in proper physi- 
cal condition to promote plant growth in order to be fertile. In the 
production of sugar beets a moderatelj^ fertile soil is required. If the 
soil is lacking in fertility the roots may be too small to produce suffi- 
cient tonnage to make the crop profitable to the grower. 

Under ordinary farm conditions there is little danger of the soil 
being too fertile for satisfactory beet growing. Occasionally spots 
are so fertile that large roots low in sugar are produced, as, for 
example, an old feed lot, a barnyard which has been turned into a 
portion of the field, or a spot where an old straw stack has been left 
to decay. These areas are small and insignificant when compared 
with the total sugar-beet acreage in the United States, but they 
sometimes have an important bearing upon the results on an indi- 
vidual farm, especially where the sugar-beet acreage on that par- 
ticular farm is small. The greatest danger from the standpoint of 
fertility arises from the lack of those physical conditions or the 
absence of available plant foods to produce large yields. The prin- 
cipal problem, therefore, in this connection lies in the improvement 
of the fertility of the soil. Soils may be rendered infertile through 
natural causes, such as leaching, and through artificial causes, such as 
single cropping, improper crop rotation, and the improper propor- 
tion of live stock to crop production. One of the principal methods 
that may be employed to increase soil fertilitj^ is the addition of 
humus to the soil, either in the form of stable manure or of green 
crops plowed under. 

Stable manure. — One of the most satisfactory methods of supply- 
ing humus to the soil. is the proper use of stable manure. A close 
relation should exist between the number of live stock on the sugar- 
beet farm and the acreage under cultivation. Studies in prac- 
tically all parts of the sugar-beet area indicate that the number of 
live stock on most farms is too small for the most profitable produc- 
tion of crops and is usually below the possibilities in both live stock 



28 BULLETIN 1>95,- U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

and ci'op ])ro(luction when we consider the number of acres under 
cultivation and the satisfactory crops tliat the tillable area is capable 
of producin<r when properly fertilized and tilled. Furthermore, a 
considerable portion of the stable manure produced on most suo;ar- 
I'eet farms is wasted or rendered only partially effective either by 
not <>ivin<>: it proper care or l)y the method in which it is handled in 
connection with crop production. In addition to the humus con- 
tained in stable manure, considerable quantities of plant food are 
present, which, if properly handled, add to the fertility of the soil. 
This plant food is laro^ely soluble; consecpiently the leachinfj process 
to which the stable manure is in most cases subjected, owing to the 
fact that it is usually exposed to rains and snows, frequently causes 
much of the fertility to be lost. Again, stable manure is often spread 
upon the fields and left exposed to the weather, until a large part of 
the volatile plant foods has passed off into the atmosphere. Much 
of the nitrogen is often lost in this manner. The best results in 
utilizing stable manure in connection with sugar-beet production are 
obtained by applying the manure to the crop preceding the beet 
crop: this allows the manure to be thoroughly worked into the soil. 
It is a common practice in many localities where manure spreaders 
are not used to haul the maniire from the feed yard or stable at 
times when thei'e is no urgent work to l)e done and to dump it in 
piles, to be spread at some convenient time l)efore the ground is 
plowed. This is a wasteful method, especially if the piles are left 
for some days or weeks without spreading, often resulting in much 
loss of valuable material through leaching. However, this method 
is preferable to spreading the manure and leaving it on the surface 
of the ground exposed to the action of the sun and wand. If the 
manure is spread and the ground can not be plowed immediately, 
it should be disked whenever practicable ; that is, if the ground is 
not frozen. Fortunately, the manure spreader is becoming more 
and more common, and where the number of liA^e stock on the farm 
Avairants it there is probably no other implement of greater value to 
the farmei'. The full value of the spreader is not realized, however, 
unless the manure is plowed under or worked into the soil imme- 
diately after s])reading. 

Green crops. — (xreen crops plowed under provide another source of 
humus for soil im])rovenient. Any vegetable matter plowed under 
and worked into the soil will add humus, though certain crops are 
more Aaluable for this purpose than others, because of the plant food 
as well as the vegetable mattei" which they contain. Such crops as 
peas, beans, clover, and alfalfa, are among the l)est for supplying 
hinnus to the soil. These crops should be i:)lowed under in the fall 
so that they will have abundant opportunity to decay before the 
growing season beains the following year, In irrigated sections 



THE BEET-SUGAB INDUSTRY IN 1920. 29 

the <rroimd should be irrigated thoroughly, if necessary, before plow- 
ing, so that there will be sufficient moisture in the soil to bring about 
the desired change in the crop plowed under. In the case of such 
crops as clover and alfalfa, usually one or moj-e cuttings are made 
for hay, and the later growth is plowed imder when it has attained 
the height of 1 to 1| feet, as shown in Plate VI, figure 1. If cowpeas 
are used for green manure they are usually planted in midsummer 
and plowed under when they have attained their normal growth in 
the fall. All crops when used for this purpose should be plowed 
under while they are still green. 

If for any reason a leguminous crop can not be grown for green 
manure, other crops, such as oats, rye, barley, or even sorghum, may 
be used. Maintaining the humus in the soil is more difficult in the 
irrigated than in the humid sections of the country. The climatic 
conditions, especially the hot winds, seem to have a decidedly reduc- 
ing effect upon the quantity of humus in the soil. Humus in irri- 
gated sections is doubly important, since it is necessary not only in 
maintaining and improving soil fertility, but it also has a decided 
advantage in increasing the water-holding capacity of the soil. 

The green crops will add little material not already in the soil. 
They may, however, bring up the elements required for plant growth 
from considerable depths and when plowed under deposit them in 
soluble form in the surface soil. For this reason deep-rooted crops 
are to be preferred for soil improvement to those more shallow 
rooted. At any rate some deep-rooted crops should be included in 
each rotation system. The legumes may increase to some extent the 
nitrogen content of the soil, and stable manure, if applied in suffi- 
cient quantity, will supply at least a pai*t of the necessary plant 
foods besides adding some humus to the soil. 

Commercial fertilizers. — If the required elements are not present 
in the soil, or if present are not readily available, they should be sup- 
plied in the form of so-called commercial fertilizers. The composition 
of the fertilizer used will depend upon the requirements of the crop to 
be grown and upon the condition of the soil which is to be used for 
crop production. From the figures given above it is apparent that 
a sugar-beet or clover crop should have an abundant supply of potash, 
while for a wheat or corn crop special attention should be given to the 
nitrogen supply. A complete fertilizer consists of nitrogen, phos- 
]jhoric acid, and potash. Compounds containing these elements are 
mixed in different proportions for different crops and for different 
soil requirements. It frequently appears that a complete fertilizer 
is not required. For example, there may be present in the soil an 
abundant supply of available potash, but the supply of nitrogen 
and phosphoric aCid may be deficient. In that case a fertilizer con- 
taining the required amount of nitrogen and phosphoric acid only 



30 I'.ri.LF/nx Ofio, r. s. departmkxt of agriculture. 

sliould be applied. Under certain conditions commercial fertilizers 
do not seem to be effective. This may be due to the fact that 
tlie fertilizer elements are not used in the proper proportions, or it 
may be due to the physical condition of the soil. The g:reatest 
benefits are obtained from commercial fertilizers Avhen the soil is 
well supplied with humus. There should, of course, be a suffi- 
cient supply of moisture in the soil to dissohe and hold in solution 
the plant foods that are already present or that may be supplied in 
the form of a commercial fertilizer. The benefits arisin<>- from the 
use of fertilizers, whether stal)le manure, green crops, or mineral com- 
pounds, are frequently noticeable over a period of several years; 
hence, in estimating the value of a fertilizer the results of several 
seasons'" crops should be taken into account. 

CROP ROTATION. 

Occasionally a farm is found on which beets are grown on the sam;> 
field year after year. AVhile this seems to give satisfactory results 
for a time in some instances, it is in general a poor method and one 
that can not be recommended, since it tends to encourage the de- 
velopment of certain sugar-beet pests which eventually render the 
crop unprofitable. The rotation practiced in the various sugar-beet 
areas must necessarily depend upon the crops that do best or are 
most profitable in these several localities, as well as upon the crop 
and live-stock requirements of the farm. In some areas, for example, 
the Irish potato is a profitable crop and forms an important link 
in a system of rotation with sugar beets. In other areas the Irish 
potato is not successful, and in such* sections it would be a waste of 
time and money to undertake to utilize it in rotation with sugar 
beets. Again, there are areas in which the muskmelon is very satis- 
factory and rotates w^ell with sugar beets or other crops: in other 
parts of the sugar-beet territory the muskmelon can not be grown 
with success. In planning the rotation, therefore, one must have 
in mind not only the crops that will rotate well with sugar beets, 
but also the success of those crops independently. The grower must 
also consider the practicability of handling such crops from the 
standpoint of his returns; for example, in some sugar-beet areas 
alfalfa gives good yields, but because the hauls are so long the 
value of the alfalfa under normal conditions is not sufficient to pay 
the transportation charges and leave a reasonable profit. Therefore, 
unless there is an abundance of live stock to utilize the alfalfa locally 
or unless it is needed as a soil improver, it is not a satisfactory rota- 
tion crop in certain localities in spite of the fact that it produces 
satisfactory yields. Our studies of the various sugar-beet sections 
indicate that live stock is an important factor in crop rotation on the 
sugar-beet farms. As already indicated, certain crops can be grown 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN 1920. 31 

to advantage if there is an abundance of live stock to utilize them. 
Even if certain crops could be sold from the farm at a reasonable 
return above the cost of production, it would be poor policy to sell 
them, for the reason that by so doing a large amount of plant food 
would be shipped away. Live stock, if properly handled, enable the 
farmer to keep a larger proportion of the plant foods on the farm 
than could be done if the crops themselves were removed. Feeding 
the crops on the farm is the best practice and will generalh' yield the 
largest returns per unit of land and per unit of labor, especially if 
the proper relations between crops, live stock, land area, and labor 
are established. It is apparent, therefore, that several objects may 
be accomplished by proper crop rotation, all of which must be kept 
in mind in order to reap the greatest returns from the sugar-beet 
farm. 

Effect on the soil. — As has been previously noted, all plants require 
certain plant foods, and these elements are utilized by different plants 
in different proportions. The rotation of crops insures a better 
utilization of these plant foods than can be obtained by growing 
a single crop. Certain crops are deep rooted, while others are more 
shallow. The deep-rooted crops tend to stir the soil to a greater 
depth and in this way make the plant foods more readily available 
for the shallow- feeding crops. Certain crops aid in the production 
of certain plant foods, as, for example, the leguminous crops store 
nitrogen, which is rendered available to the other crops grown in 
rotation with the legumes. Again, certain crops require more or 
less cultivation, as is the case with sugar beets. This stirring of the 
soil tends to expose the plant foods to the action of the elements, 
thereb}^ rendering the mineral material available for the use of the 
beet plants and the plants of succeeding crops. 

Relation of pests to crop rotation. — The rotation of crops tends 
to reduce or to destroy those pests which depend upon certain plants 
for their existence. As is well known, some plant pests live and 
thrive only on certain plants. If these plants are grown year after 
year in the same field, they furnish favorable breeding conditions 
for the propagation and increase of these pests. By changing to 
other crops, plants upon Avhich the pests can not live or upon which 
they do not thrive may be grown and the pests thereby destroj^ed or 
reduced to a minimum. Frequently the pests have resistant forms 
or stages in which they can exist in a dormant condition for several 
years, as is notably true of the brown-cyst stage of the sugar-beet 
nematode and the resting-spore stage of certain fungi. In such 
cases it is necessary to plan the rotations with a view to starving out 
these pests. To do this the rotations must be of such a length that 
crops upon whicH these pests can not thrive may be grown for several 
years in succession. In some cases other methods must be resorted 



32 1!L'LLET]]S' W;.3, U. S. I)EPARTMi-:XT OF AGRICUl/mu:. 

to in order to control the destructive pests, but ;i large number of the 
sugar-beet pests, including some of the fungi and bacteria as well 
as insect pests, may be controlled by crop rotation. 

Effect of siKjai' beets upon other c/'ops. — As a rule, the ett'ect of 
sugar beets upon succeeding crops is beiielicial. This is especially 
true of the small grains; that is, small grains grown after sugar beets 
will almost invariably produce larger yields than when these grains 
follow other crops. The sugar beet does not gather nitrogen from 
the air and transform it into plant food, but, owing to its long main 
root and its uneven feeding rootlets, it gathers a considerable quan- 
tity of several soluble mineral salts and stores them in the beet crown, 
and Avhen the beet tops are fed to live stock and the manure returned 
to the soil considerable fertility is added. In addition to this im- 
proved fertility of the soil the methods of cultivation employed in 
growing and harvesting the beet crop put the soil in splendid tilth, 
thereby forming good seed and root beds for the crops that follow 
the beets. Although sugar beets are grown primarily for the cash 
value of the roots as a source of sugar, the feeds obtained from the 
beet tops, molasses, and pulp, an<l the increased fertility and improved 
tilth of the soil are recognized as indirect benetits to the beet growers, 
and are important factors in considering the advisability of growing- 
sugar beets. These indirect benefits due to sugar-beet growing have 
only a remote bearing upon the price paid for beets and upon the 
price of sugar. They should, however, be considered in figuring the 
profits derived from sugar-beet culture. 

COMPETING CROPS. 

Crops grown in competition with sugar beets may or may not l)e 
suitable for rotation wdth sugar beets. By competing crops is meant 
those crops grown in sugar-beet areas which appear to be more profit- 
able or more easily produced, or for some reason are so favored by 
the farmer that he may possibly prefer them to sugar beets. Some of 
the competing crops do not lend themselves readily to a rotation witli 
sugar beets. In such cases the competing crops may be a limiting- 
factor in sugar-beet production on an individual farm, or if the crop 
is a general one it may be a limiting factor in sugar-beet production 
in a given community. A crop may compete with sugar beets because 
of its market price, because of the small amount of labor involved in 
its production, because of the peculiar fitness of the soil for the grow- 
ing of that crop, because of local market conditions, or because it fits 
more closely the requirements of the individual farms than any other 
crop. The competing crops in the sugar-beet sections are beans, to- 
bacco, potatoes, muskmelons, alfalfa, and grains. Other crops may 
temporarily be competing with sugar beets, and some of those men- 
tioned may for local or other reasons temporarily cease to be compet- 



THE BEET-SrC.AR INDUSTin' IN 1!>20. 33 

in<r crops. Most of the competing crops may form a satisfactory 
crop- rotation sj^stem with sugar beets in one or more of the recognized 
sugar-beet areas. 

BeanH. — In the farm-to-farm survey of the Office of Sugar-Phint 
Investigations beans have been found as a competing crop in several 
localities, and under certain conditions it is one of the strongest 
com])etit()rs. This crop is easily produced and brings a fair return 
to the farmer for the labor and money invested. In some of the 
areas studied beans have ceased to be a competing crop because of 
local conditions, chief of Avhich is the presence of certain bean 
diseases. It was believed that beans could follow beans profitably 
in the same field for a number of years, but this, like all other crops, 
is more satisfactory in the long run when grown in proper rotation 
with other crops. As in the case of sugar beets, continuous cropping 
with beans has enabled certain diseases of the bean to be propagated 
from year to year, theieby becoming more Avidespread and more de- 
structive, until bean production in certain areas is no longer profit- 
able. If properly handled, beans should be a good crop to rotate Avith 
sugar beets. They should not compete with the sugar beet to the 
exclusion of the latter, for the reasons above stated. The diseases 
affecting sugar beets and beans are for the most part very different, 
and for this reason these crops rotate well together. Again, the 
sugar beet leaves the ground in good condition for the production 
of the bean crop. If the beet crop has been properly handled the 
Aveeds are eliminated, and in this respect the field is left in a good 
condition for beans. Furtliermore. sugar beets leave the ground in 
good physical condition for a bean crop ; on the other hand, if beans 
precede beets they will leave the ground in good condition for the 
sugar beets. The order of rotation, therefore, with these crops is 
not particularly important. 

r6>5«cc6>.— Tobacco is not generally grown in the sugar-beet areas, 
but there are a few localities in which both tobacco and sugar beets 
are produced. Though the tobacco crop is expensive to handle, the 
returns under favorable conditions make it a strong competitor. 
The methods used in growing tobacco do not usually lend themselves 
well to crop rotation ; for example, tobacco fields are usually heavily 
fertilized with commercial fertilizer. Part of the results to be ex- 
l^ected from these fertilizers should be apparent during the second 
or cA'en the third year after they are applied. Owing to this large 
expense growers usually expect to use the same field for the tobacco 
crop for a series of years, c(msequently it does not admit of ordinary 
crop rotation. Again, the tobacco crop requires a large anioimt of 
labor, some of ,Avhich conflicts with the labor necessary for sugar- 
beet production. If, however, a farmer can obtain sufficient labor 
r)(),s80 ° — l^ u 1 1 . 99."i— 2 1 3 



34 BULLETIN »9'5, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE. 

to handle both crops there should be no serious difficulty in produc- 
ino- l>oth sugar beets and tobacco, especially if these crojjs are pro- 
duced on comparatively small areas on the individual farm. It may 
be found, also, that these crops will rotate one with the other to the 
advantage of both. 

Potatoes. — In certain areas studied, the potato under present con- 
ditions is one of the strongest competing crops with sugar beets. 
Where these crops are grown in rotation, however, the results, from 
the standpoint of yield, are satisfactory. Unfortunately, certain dis- 
eases affecting potatoes attack sugar beets also; this is notably true 
of the scab. When the price of potatoes is high the tendency in the 
especially good potato areas is to increase the potato acreage and to 
diminish the sugar-beet acreage correspondingly. The chief danger 
is that when an extra-large potato crop is harvested the price usually 
drops, and the results are somewhat disappointing. It should be 
noted in this connection that the prices paid for sugar beets are 
fixed in practically all cases before the seed is planted. The returns 
from this crop depend not only upon the yield, but upon the quality 
of the beets produced and upon the wholesale price of sugar. As 
already indicated, sugar beets and potatoes form a part of a satis- 
factory rotation, but neither of these crops should immediately suc- 
ceed or follow the other, because of the diseases that are common 
to both plants. There should be one or two years of intervening, 
crops, such as small grains or alfalfa. 

Alfalfa. — In some localities studied, alfalfa has appeared to be a 
strong competing crop with sugar beets. This is true in part because 
of the tendency to leave alfalfa sod without breaking for a number 
of years, thereby making a very long rotation or, in some cases, 
Avhat amounts to no rotation ; for example, certain areas have been 
found in which alfalfa has remained undisturbed in some fields for 
upAvard of 20 years. Alfalfa is an inexpensive crop to produce, pro- 
vided a good stand is obtained. This is not difficult if the ground is 
well prepared and properly handled at seeding time. After the 
alfalfa has become established the expense of maintaining the crop 
IS slight, and the chief expense in connection with alfalfa production 
consists in irrigating in certain sections and in harvesting and mar- 
keting the crop. 

In some sections where alfalfa grows well it is not a competing 
crop with sugar beets, because of the remoteness of these areas 
from the market or because it i^ not fed locally to advantage; but 
in cases where the alfalfa is used locally to advantage or where 
the markets are accessible it may compete strongly with the sugar 
beet and may exclude the latter to such an extent that the beet acreage 
will be so small that the profitable operation of a sugar mill is not 
possible : for a sugar mill should have a sufficient quantity of beets to 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN 1920, 35 

insure a run of at least !()(» days each year, though the avei'a<>e jun for 
1920 Avas only 91 days. (Table IV, p. 6.) 

Sugar beets may be grown in rotation with alfalfa to good ad- 
vantage under certain conditions, and our studies have sliown the 
advantage of these conditions in several instances. This is espe- 
cially true if the farmer looks upon the alfalfa crop as a soil- 
improving crop as well as a crop from which direct satisfactory 
retui-ns may be expected. In such cases alfalfa may be grown 
two or three years, and at the end of this period the last crop of 
alfalfa is plowed under for the improvement of the soil, thus put- 
ting it in good condition for one or two crops of sugar beets. It 
is not desirable to grow sugar beets immediately after old alfalfa, 
because the old alfalfa roots are large and Avoody and interfere 
seriously with cultivation. It is better to follow old alfalfa with 
a noncultivated crop, such as small grain, which in turn may be 
followed by sugar beets. 

Fruit. — In several sugar-beet areas fruit has been found to be 
a competing crop. In several instances the sugar beet has been 
eliminated or shifted to other areas, or reduced in area below the 
point of a profitable mill run. It is sometimes possible to grow 
considerable areas of beets in orchards when the trees are small, 
but as the orchards get older and the trees increase in spreacl of 
Ijranches and roots the vacant space between them must necessarily 
become smaller and smaller until finally the sugar beet is excluded. 
When fruit growing has become general in a sugar-beet area, as 
has been the case in several instances in certain localities, sugar- 
beet growing and diversified farming in general have been prac- 
tically eliminated. Occasionally some misfortune overtakes the 
fruit industry, and the area again returns to general farming-, 
including sugar beets. In one locality studied the entire cycle has 
been passed through, and the fruit growers are now removing their 
trees and returning to general farm practice, including the grow- 
ing of sugar beets. 

FARM EQUIPMENT. 

The equipment on the sugar-beet farm is a matter of vital im- 
portance. It covers a wide range but ma}' be groujjed under four 
general heads, namely, soil and water, implements, live stock, and 
labor. If a farm is lacking in any of the essential parts of the 
equipment, and if these parts can not be supplied, successful sugar- 
beet growing is not possible. The equipment differs to some extent 
in different localities, especially between the humid and irrigated 
sections. Soil and water are not usually listed as a part of the 
farm equipment, but are included here in order to emphasize their 
importance in crop production. 



36 BULLETIX 9{>5, TJ. S. DEPAETMEN^T OF AGRICULTURE. 

SUITABLE SOIL. 

As previously noted, a suitable soil, together with a satisfactory 
subsoil, is one of the first requisites in the production of sugar beets. 
Although soil is not usually classed as a part of the farming equip- 
ment, it is in fact a very essential i)art. If the soil is very sandy or 
extremely rocky, it is not probabk that it would pay to undertake 
the growing of sugar beets. Certain conditions of soil may be 
changed or modified by proper cultural methods, so that an other- 
wise unfavorable soil condition may be changed to a sufficiently fa- 
vorable condition to enable the farmer to produce a satisfactory croj) 
of beets; for examj^le, a hard subsoil may sometimes be broken \\\) 
in such a manner that a sufficiently deep soil for the production of 
beets is produced. Again, an infertile soil due to lack of humus, to a 
scarcity of lime, or to improper crop rotation, may be remedied at 
a small cost and an otherAvise unproductive soil rendered productive. 
As already noted, a soil containing an excess of moisture or one in 
which the water table is too near the surface may be made proTluctive 
by proper drainage. It is apparent, therefore, that soil, from the 
standpoint of equipment, may be a permanent limiting factor, which 
in some cases can not be overcome sufficiently to enable the farmer 
to produce a satisfactory crop of beets, while, on the other hand, 
thi^ part of the farmer's equipment may be modified in many cases 
by proper treatment and the barrier to sugar-beet production re- 
moved. This part of the farm equipment, however, like work stock. 
im})lements, and labor, is just as essential for the production of 
other crops as for the production of sugar beets. 

IMPLEMENTS. 

Many of the implements used in sugar-beet growing are the same 
as those used in the production of other crops, though some special 
implements are necessary in order to grow sugar beets successfully; 
tliis is es])ecially true of the drill shoAvn in Plate I, figure 1, and the 
cultivator, Plate IV, figure 1. 

DrUls mid euZtivatms. — Sugar beets are grown in rows about 20 
inches apart, and there is a special drill for the planting of sugar- 
beet seed. There are several sugar-beet drills on the market 
whicli seem to be fairly satisfactory. In some localities tlie farmers 
own their beet drills, and in others they are owned by the sugar 
companies and rented to the farmers at a small charge per acre. 
Most of the drills made for planting sugar-beet seed are so con- 
structed that they Avill plant four rows at a time, as shown in Plate I. 
figure 1. Likewise, the cultivator is especially adapted to sugar-beet 
work, and Avil] cultivate four rows corresponding to the drill. This 
is very important, as will be noted by those who have had exi)eri- 
ence in using a cultivator in such narrow rows. In planting four 



THE BBET-SUGAK INDUSTRY IN i;>20, 37 

roAvs at a time many doviations from a straight line will occur in 
each of the four roAvs, which can, therefore, be followed more readily 
with a 4-row cultivator with less damage to the plants. The beet 
cultiA'ators are usually equipped Avith A'arious implements for stir- 
ring the soil, destrojang Aveeds, and forming a mulch, depending upon 
the soil conditions and the size of the beets. 

Plows. — The oi'dinary AAalking or riding ploAA' can be used in turn- 
ing the soil in the preparation of the seed bed. The 2-Avay ploAV is 
Avell adapted to the sugar-beet crop, for the I'eason that it produces 
neither back furroAA' nor dead furroAA's. This is especially important 
in the irrigated areas. In some localities the disk ploAv is frequently 
used, although the ordinary moldboard ploAA^ is in most common use in 
sugar-beet areas. The adA^antage of the disk ploAv for deep ploAA'- 
ing is that it enables one to stir the soil to a good depth if the ploAv 
is properly constructed and adjusted, AA^ithout bringing too much 
laAA^ soil to the surface. The ploAvs in use A^ary from the AA^alking 
moldboard ploAv through A^arious types of sulky plows to the disk 
ploAA^ AA-ith its numerous variations. In some types of soil it is espe- 
ciall}^ desirable to giA^e an occasional deep plowing. 

Best results are generally obtained by fall ploAving for sugar 
beets. The farm-to-farm survey as Avell as the experience and obser- 
vation of the Office of Sugar-Plant InA^estigations indicates that fair 
results may be obtained by spring ploAving, provided the soil has been 
previously in good tilth. 

Harrows. — In i)reparing a seed bed for any crop the disk harroAV 
IS a A^aluable implement. It is frequently used to advantage before 
the ground is ploAved. When so used it puts the surface of the 
ground in such condition that holes or spaces are noAvhere left 
when the ground is turned Avith the ploAV. The disk harroAv is used 
sometimes in breaking up lumps or clods after the plowing has been 
done; howcA'er, if the ground has been ploAved when in good condi- 
tion and has been properly treated after plowing there Avill be no 
large lumps or clods for the disk harrow to break. In case weeds 
start before the time for planting the sugar-beet seed the disk harroAv 
is sometimes useful in destroying them. In S(mie instances in Avhich 
beets have been followed by beets good results have been obtained 
by omitting the ploAving and simply disking and harroAving in the 
preparation of the seed bed in the early spring. The proper prepara- 
tion after the ground is plowed consists in harroAving, preferably 
Avith a spike-tooth harrow or other form of this implement, Avhich 
simply stirs the surface of the ground and makes a moderately fine 
mulch. It is a more or less common practice to harroAv at the end 
of each half clay or, at the latest, at the end of each day the ground 
just ploAved. This is a practice to be especially recommended in cases 
of spring ploAving, since it has a tendency to hold the moisture in 



38 BULLETIN 995, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

the soil, thereby leaving it in good condition to form a satisfactory 
seed bed. In case of fall or winter plowing it is better to leave 
the ground rough, in order that it may catch or hold the winter 
snows and rains. 

The scraper mid float. — In the irrigated sections leveling is some- 
times necessary to put the ground in condition to be irrigated. As 
pointed out on page 10, ground which is not level or nearly so can 
not be satisfactorily irrigated. This is especially true with a crop 
like sugar beets, which must be irrigated by the furrow method. If 
the ground is leveled before the plowing is done, a scraper is com- 
monly used. If the leveling is left until after the ground is ploAved, 
an implement called a float is frequently used; this consists of two 
planks placed on edge and so framed together, about 6 or S feet 
apart, that they can be dragged sideways over the field as shoAvu in 
Plate V, figure 2. This has the advantage of not only leveling the 
ground, but it tends to break up the small clods and puts the 
ground in good condition for further preparation of the seed bed. 
Frequently the Fresno scraper is used before plowing if the surface 
is very uneven, and the float is used after plowing in the same field. 
The two operations are quite distinct; the former is usually called 
scraping and the latter leveling. The scraping is necessary only 
when inequalities in the surface of the field are very marked. The 
time and labor spent in leveling will be repaid in the production of 
sugar beets, both from the standpoint of yield and from that of labor 
saved in irrigating. 

The roller. — Another implement of considerable importance in 
sugar-beet growing is the roller. There are two types of this imple- 
ment, us shown in Plate II, figures 1 and 2, namely, the smooth 
roller and the so-called corrugated roller. The latter is desirable in 
those localities where there are high winds, since the corrugations 
tend to prevent the soil from shifting under the influence of the 
wind. The chief advantage of the roller is its surface-packing 
effect. If the root bed is inclined to be loose the subsurface packer 
should be used immediately after plowing. As previously noted, 
the seed bed for sugar beets should be decidedly firm, for the two 
reasons, at least, that the firmness of the seed bed tends to hold the 
moisture, and at the same time prevents the sinking of the drill 
wheels, which would frequently result in planting the seed too deep. 
The seed bed that is unevenly firm or in which there are soft spots or 
areas is always unsatisfactory, as it results in an uneven start of the 
beet plants, which interferes with the handling of the crop. 

Harvesting tools. — At harvest time the beet lifter, a special im- 
plement not required in harvesting other crops, is necessary. (PI. 
VII, fig. 1.) There are two forms of this implement, namely, the 
double-pointed lifter and the side lifter. In the former, one point 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN 1920. 39 

passes alono- each side of the beet root at a depth of several inches 
below the surface and is so constructed that the beets are loosened 
and slightly lifted. (PI. VII, fi<>-. 2.) The side lifter passes along 
one side of the beet row and loosens the beet, usually without lifting- 
it : in either case the roots, after they have been loosened, can readily 
be pulled and throAvn into ])iles. Care sliould be taken in 
using these lifters to see that the beet roots are not broken, as con- 
siderable loss frequently results to the grower from the breaking 
of the roots, causing the lower part of the beet to be left in the 
ground. 

In topping beets by hand, heavy knives closely resembling large 
butcher knives are used ; in some localities sickles are used for the 
purpose. This work, now done by hand, as shown in Plate VIII, 
figure 1, may be done by machinery. (PI. IX.) In loading the 
beets on the wagons, forks specially consti'ucted Avith a knob of metal 
on the end of each tine should be used, so that the beets ma}- not be 
punctured when they are forked onto the wagon. Special beet racks, 
as shown in Plate VI, figure '2, and Plate VIII, figure 2, are commonly 
used in hauling the beets to the factory or dump. These special racks 
are necessary in facilitating the unloading of the beets at the dumps, 
where the beets are emptied from tlie wagons onto the cars. (PL 
A'lll, fig. 2.) If the beets are forked from the wagon the ordinary 
wagon box may be used, but generally the beets are dumped, in which 
case racks with hinged sides are necessary. P^urthermore, the special 
rack holds more roots than the ordinary Avagon bed, thereby reducing 
the cost of delivering the crop. 

Sugar-heet harvester. — Heretofore the most laborious operation 
connected with beet culture has been the harvesting. This operation 
consists of three parts, lifting, pulling, and topping, as described 
aboAe. The pulling and topping have been done entirely by hand at 
a cost of $7 to $9 per acre. Many attempts have been made in this 
country and in Europe to construct a mechanical harvester. Recently 
seA'eral types of this implement liaAe been improved, and it is ex- 
pected that they Avill be available to harvest at least a part of the 
1921 acreage. One type of harA^ester, as shoAvn in Plate IX, figure 
1, is a motor-driA^en device Avhich lifts the beets entirely out of the 
ground and tops and piles the joots. Another type of harA^ester, as 
shoAvn in Plate IX. figure 2. is a liorse-draAvn implement which 
tops the beet and then lifts the root. Each implement is oj^erated by 
one man; hence, the saving in labor and ii> labor cost are considera- 
tions that appeal to the beet groAA^'er. 

LIVE STOCK. 

The liA^e stock on the sugar-beet farm should consist of work stock 
and other animals. One of the most important i)arts of the necessary 



40 BULLETIN 995, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

e(|uipment on a beet farm is the work stock, wliicli should be suffi- 
cient in number, size, and quality to handle the work readily. For 
the heavy work, such as deep plowing, lifting, and hauling the beets, 
heavy work animals, similar to those shown in Plates II, V, and VI, 
are desirable. Work stock of proper size and quality, therefore, are 
an essential part of the equipment. The horses should be trained 
to follow rows Avhen cultivating. Large animals, properly trained 
and handled, will do this work without injury to the beets and may 
be used unless small animals are available for this purpose. 

Apparently the tractor is taking the place of work animals in some 
localities for many of the operations on sugar-beet farms. A farm 
tractor should be of simple and durable construction, moderate in 
price, easily and cheaply operated, and capable of making fair speed 
when required. 

Animals, in addition to work stock, are essential on the sugar-beet 
farm in order to utilize to the best advantage the beet tops and 
pulp, as well as the feeds grown in rotation Avith the beets, and also 
to furnish the necessary farmyard manure required to keep up and 
improve the fertility of the soil. The particular kind of stock, 
whether dairy coavs, beef cattle, sheep, hogs, or poultry, will depend 
upon the locality, especially with reference to the markets, upon the 
kind of labor obtainable for handling the stock, and upon the other 
farm crops adapted to that jjarticular locality. 



The question of labor on a beet farm is of vital importance, and 
the lack of labor to handle beets at the proper time will constitute 
a limiting factor in sugar-beet production. Other things being 
equal, the beet grower with sufficient dependable labor of good qual- 
it}^ at his command will handle the crop to the best advantage. For 
those growers who have not a sufficient amount of labor aA^ailable for 
the production of sugar beets in addition to the other farm work, 
the sugar companies will usually undertake to obtain laborers. These 
laborers usually are transient, coming into an area at the beginning 
of the growing season, caring for a given acreage of beets during 
that season, and returning to their homes after the beets are har- 
vested. In some instances they go out year after year to Avork in 
the same locality and for the same farmers. Frequently they rent 
land after a feAv years of experience and remain in the community 
throughout the year ; such workers sometimes j^urchase land, thereby 
becoming landowners and employers of labor. The labor imported 
into an area for Avork in connection with sugar beets is handled under 
contract at a fixed price per acre. Before he leaves his home the 
laborer demands a contract stipulating the acreage that he will be 



Bui. 995, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



PLATE VII. 




Fig. I. — Lifting the Beets, the First Operation in Harvesting the Crop 

BY Hand. 

The lifter is sometimes provided with a riding attachment. 




Fig. 2. — One Type of Sugar-Beet Lifter Used in Some Localities. 

This illustration shows the construction of the liftins parts, which are raised out of the ground in 
turning at the end of the row. 



Bui. 995, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 



PLATE VIII. 




Fig. I. — Topping and Piling a Crop of Sugar Beets by Hand. 




Fig. 2. — One Form of Dump Used in Unloading Beets from a Beet Wagon. 

The load has just been dumped into a freight car and tlie wagon is still tilted. 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN li)20. 41 

allowed to handle and the price per acre that he will receive for the 
labor. Labor problems are more fully treated on pages 42 to 44. 

BEET BY-PRODUCTS AND LIVE STOCK. 

Live stock constitutes an important factor in the success of beet 
growing- from tAvo standpoints: (1) The utilization of beet tops and 
pulp and (2) the production of stable or barn^-ard manure. 

Kind of live stock to feed. — Sugar-beet toj^s and pulp are good feed 
for all kinds of live stock, including chickens, hogs, sheep, cattle, and, 
to some extent, horses. Generally the tops and pulp are fed to sheep 
and cattle. There are several methods by which the beet tops may 
be utilized- for feed. They may be pastured olf, a process which con- 
sists in turning the live stock into the beet field after the beets have 
been harvested and the roots removed, as shown in Plate X, figure 1. 
The tops are left scattered over the ground, and this method of 
feeding results in the ground being more or less trampled. Sheep 
especiall}' are inclined to travel more generally in paths, thereby 
trampling the ground unevenly. In no case should the pasturing 
of the tops be permitted when the ground is wet, since the ground 
itself would be seriously injured by trampling in that condition and 
many of the tops Avould be wasted by being trampled into the 
ground. While live stock thrives on beet tops and pulp, other feed 
must be used in finishing the animals for the market. Beet tops, 
especially the crowns, contain considerable mineral matter which is 
beneficial to liye stock, but it should not be fed in too large quantities. 

The tops are sometimes allowed to cure partly and are then 
gathered into piles, hauled to the feed j^ard. and fed in racks, one 
form of which is shown in Plate X, figure 2. Tliis is a much more 
economical method of utilizing the tops, but it involves the additional 
expense of gathering and hauling. The tops ma}^ also be used as 
ensilage. When chopped with straw, cornstalks, or other roughage 
excellent silage is produced. Both the tops and the pulp are excellent 
for dairy cows, since they act as a tonic upon the animals as well 
as a food and increase the flow of milk. Pulp is used either fresh 
or dried. It is dried artificially, either by itself or in combination 
with mola.sses. When dried by itself it contains the same substances 
as when fresh; when dried with molasses it, of course, contains the 
added sugar and mineral matter. The object in drying the pulp is 
to make it easier to handle. About SO per cent of the weight is lost 
in drying and when dried it can be shipped long distances. It should 
be soaked for several hours before it is fed to stock. 

Nuinho' of live ■•■ftoek to keep. — It is apparent that there should 
be a suitable ratio between the number of live stock and the available 
tops, pulp, and other feed on the farm. As stated above, animals 



42 BULLETIN 995, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

can not be finished for the market on the beet by-products, and 
unless other feed is available it will not be adA'isable to purchase 
animals for feeding purposes with a view to turning them on the 
market later. If the farmer is provided with dairy cows, it is ad- 
visable to furnish them with one or two feeds of tops or pulp each 
day. The tops, Avhen cured or pitted, will keep for several months ; 
the pulp when left in a large pile will not spoil for feeding purposes, 
except in a thin layer on the surface. If the tops or the pulp are 
fed heavily to dairy cows, a distinct increase in the flow of milk 
marks the top and pulp feeding period, and there will generally be a 
marked falling off in the flow of milk when this feed is discontinued. 
Since the supply of tops and pulp is limited, it is better to continue 
the feeding over a longer period, giving a smaller amount to each 
of the animals daily. The tops and pulp should always be fed 
in combination with other feeds in order to make a balanced ration. 

LABOR PROBLEMS. 

One of the most serious problems on many of the beet farms is that 
of labor. The difficulties in connection with the labor question as 
related to sugar-beet culture are due to the fact that a part of the 
work must be done by hand and is tedious; furthermore, the hdjor 
in connection Avith this crop is not continuous. For example, there 
is a period in the spring when considerable labor is i-equired for the 
blocking and thinning of the beets, as shoAvn in Plate III, figure 1. 
The work during midsummer is light, consisting of a little hoeing. 
In the fall there is another increase in the labor requirement, due to 
the harvest, followed by the winter m<mths, when little or no held 
work in connection with this crop is done. The need for labor at 
harvest time is apparent, as the beets must be harvested promptly 
when they are mature. The reasons for pushing the beet harvest are 
several : Fall rains may set in and cause the roots to deteriorate in 
quality, the roots may be frozen in the ground if harvest is cielayed, 
the mill must have sufficient roots to operate continuously, and the 
farmer must get the beet crop out of the way in order to do his other 
fall work. The question of obtaining and holding the necessary labor 
for the handling of this crop has been one of the serious problems in 
sugar-beet growing in this country. Beet labor may be classified 
under three heads — family labor, community labor, and hired labor, 
the latter being divided again into general labor, regular and tran- 
sient, and into contract labor. 

Family labor. — By this term is meant the labor furnished by the 
family which has contracted with the sugar company to groAv the 
beets. It may be the family of the landowner or the family of the 
tenant. Usually the most successful operations in sugar-beet grow- 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN 1920. 43 

m<i: are in those localities where the labor is handled by the family 
of the grower. In those localities the beet acrea<^e per farm is usualh' 
small and the beet labor is not burdensome. This class of labor is 
usually more vitally interested in the success of the crop than other 
kinds of labor, and therefore greater pains are taken to produce and 
maintain good stands. 

Community labor. — By community labor is meant the exchange of 
labor between the beet-growing families in a given community. 
Usually not all the beets in a given community are ready to be 
thinned or harvested at the same time, and since both of these opera- 
tions must be done as promptly as possible when the beets are ready, 
it has been found advantageous for families in the same community 
to use the exchange-labor method in handling this crop. This ex- 
change system is not confined to the beet crop, but is a common prac- 
tice in many localities in carrying on all kinds of farm work which 
needs to be done quickly, such as haying and grain harvesting. 

General labor. — By general labor is meant that labor which is 
employed by the day, month, or year for the general farm work. 
Transient labor is that part of this labor that comes and goes with- 
out any certainty as to its permanency and with little responsibility 
as to the results of the work. It is seldom used in handling the 
sugar-beet crop, as it is not sufficiently dependable. All farming 
communities are familiar with this kind of labor to a greater or less 
extent. It is unreliable and unsatisfactory, but sometimes enables 
a farmer to get through a temporary rush period without serious 
damage to his crop. On many farms there are monthh' or annual 
laborers who take part in all of the farming operations, including 
the sugar-beet work. Usually this class of labor is very satisfactory 
in the beet fields, and the farmers are fortunate if by the aid of their 
general helpers they are able to care for the beet crop in addition 
to the other work. 

Contract lahor. — This is the most common class of labor employed 
to do the handwork in caring for the sugar-beet crop, and, as the term 
implies, the work is done under contract. The term " contract labor " 
as used in this connection is often misunderstood. It is thought 
by some who are not familiar with beet-growing conditions that the 
so-called beet-labor contracts are decidedly to the advantage of the 
landowner or of the sugar company and that such labor is compelled 
to work under contract. Usually the sugar company has no interest 
in the contract labor except in helping the grower to get his work 
done at the proper time and in the best possible manner. The land- 
owner or beet grower desires a contract, so that he will be sure of the 
necessary help in Itandling his crop at the proper time, but above 
all the laborers themselves desire a contract which specifies the 
number of acres of beets that a given individual, family, or other 



44 BULL]5TIN 995, V. S. PEPARTMEXT OF AOEICri.TURE. 

^roup of workers Avill be permitted to handle and the price that 
they will receive per acre for their labor. These contracts are 
usually made with so-called labor families, although individuals 
and groups of individuals sometimes enter into the contracts. The 
labor families are usually in the cities during the winter, employed 
in mills or factories, and in the summer they go out and work in 
the beet fields. For their own protection they must have a con- 
tract before they can afford to leave their employment t(^ take up a 
new line of work. Many of these families return from year to 
year to work for the same beet gi'owers. 

The contract labor usually covers all of the handwork used in 
growing the beet crop; namely, the blocking, thinning, hoeing, pull- 
ing, and topping. The landowner and tenant do all the teamwork, 
from the plowing of the land to the hauling of the beets to the 
sugar mill or loading station. 

The hand laborers usually work for a specified rate per acre, a 
part of which amount is furnished them after each operation. Occa- 
sionally they receive a specified bonus for each ton above a yield 
agreed upon. The object of this bonus is to encourage the laborers 
to maintain the best possible stands and to produce the highest pos- 
sible yield per acre. 

THE SUCCESSFUL GROWER. 

The successful ])i'()ducti()n of sugar beets on any farm depends to 
a great extent upon the temperament of the farmer and upon his atti- 
tude toAvard the production of this crop. As in other lines of busi- 
ness, the man's ability to conduct his business successfully is largely 
a matter of individual temperament, judgment, and ability to do 
the right thing in the right way and at the right time. There are 
many farmers, as there are many men in other lines of business, who 
are not adapted to the kind of work upon which they are engaged. 
It is not to be expected that these men would have any more success 
in the growing of sugar beets than in other lines of agricidture. 
Again, there are farmei'S well adapted by temperament to the par- 
ticular line of farming which they are following, but who would not 
be successful in some other line of agriculture ; for example, a man 
might grow grain on a large scale and do it very successfully; he 
might not at all be adapted to dairying or to the feeding of live 
stock. Some people can not handle live stock successfully even 
though they have right ideas in regard to the handling of crops: 
likewise, the grain farmer may not be adapted to the growing of 
sugar beets. Frequently grain production is extensive rather than 
intensive, while sugar beets should be handled intensively rather than 
extensively. At any rate intensive methods should be employed in 
growing this crop. Some growers of the extensively grown crops. 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN 1920. 45 

like grains and forag-e, sometimes become very successful orowers of 
sugar beets, but generally tliey prefer the line of agriculture which 
they have followed and from which they do not like to depart. 
The same is true of the live-stock man, although the man who han- 
dles live stock, especially dairy cows, is more inclined to take up the 
growing of such an intensive crop as sugar beets and is more apt to 
succeed in this line of agriculture than the grain or forage crop 
man. This does not apply, however, to the live-stock man who 
grows for the market, and especially the man who produces or han- 
dles large herds of cattle. The point to be made in regard to the 
grower is that he must have the natural qualifications for intensive 
agriculture and must be fitted by training and experience for the 
growing and handling of crops requiring intensive cultivation. 

DISEASES. 

Diseases are among the most apparent limiting factors in sugar- 
beet production. A crop of beets that might otherwise be very 
profitable is frequently turned to a loss by some disease. The 
sugar beet, like all other plants, is subject to disease from the time 
it begins its growth until it is harvested; and even after the plants 
are harvested, if stored under certain conditions, the beets may 
decay to a greater or less extent, impairing or destroying their 
value for sugar-making purposes. Some of the diseases are well 
known and easily controlled; others, while known, are handled 
with difficulty ; and still others are obscure as to their causes. The 
losses produced b}^ diseases may be brought about by a destruction 
of the plant itself or by some injury which reduces the size or 
quality of the beet root. 

Damping-off. — Among the diseases which attack the beet during 
the early stages of its growth is the so-called damping-off. There 
are several forms of this disease, due, apparentl}^, to different organ- 
isms. Frequently the young beet plants turn black just at the 
surface of the gound, fall over, and die. Sometimes the entire 
root turns black and softens, and sometimes the blackening is con- 
fined to the outer layer or epidermis. In the latter case the beets 
frequently recover. This disease is caused either by a fungus or 
a bacterium which is in the soil or on the seed when planted. If 
the disease is widespread, so that the stand is seriously injured, the 
field should be disked and replanted. Damping-off is more common 
in the early spring, when the ground is damp and not thoioughly 
warm, but the disease will not occur unless one of the damping-off 
organisms is present. 

Nematode^.- — The sugar-beet nematode is a minute wormlike or- 
aanism. sometimes called au eel worm. Avhich attaclies itself to the 



- Sec list of pubUcations on p. 57. 



46 BULLETIN 905, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGKIC'ULTUEE. 

root jinJ Avlien present in snfficiently lar^e numbers retards the 
iiTowth of the beet. There are several species of the nematode which 
attack the sugar beet, but only one is considered especially serious; 
hence, this species is known as the sugcar-beet nematode {Ileterodera 
schachtu). This pest has been known for many years in Europe 
and has existed in isolated localities in this country for more than 
a decade. It is spreading, both by its own activity in certain stages 
of its existence and by being carried from the present infested areas 
by various agencies. The pest lives in the soil from year to year 
and travels slowly, so that the infested area is gradually increased, 
until frequently an entire field or even a group of fields may become 
useless from the standpoint of beet production. Unfortunately, this 
pest will attack many plants besides the sugar beet. This makes it 
extremely difficult to control by crop rotation, which is one of the 
best methods knoAvn for the control of many of our plant pests. 
However, there are numerous plants that the nematode attacks to a 
very slight extent or not at all. Again, the nematode passes through 
several stages of development; one of these is known as the brown- 
cyst stage. In this stage the nematode is very resistant to unfavor- 
able conditions and will remain alive in the soil for a number of 
years ; the exact length of time is not known. The Office of Sugar- 
Plant Investigations is making every effort to determine the crops 
that are resistant to the nematode under the local soil and climatic 
conditions Avhere the nematode exists and also to determine the 
proper length of the rotation with these resistant crops, so that the 
nematodes will l)e reduced to such a small number that sugar beets 
may be grown with profit in spite of the pests. Various soil treat- 
ments also are being tested on nematode-infested areas. Some of 
these tests are very promising but will need to be repeated before 
anj^thing definite can be said regarding their beneficial effects. 
Careful surveys have been made in some of the infested areas, and 
all fields or spots in fields containing nematodes have been listed and 
marked, either for study or for the purpose of growing crops other 
than sugar beets on them. A similar campaign is planned in the 
other infested areas where the sugar-beet nematode has gained a 
foothold, while a careful watch is being kept over all sugar-beet 
areas in order to detect and combat the pest on its first appearance. 

Curly-top. — The curly-to}) is confined to the western part of the 
United States. So far as is known, it has not been seen in the east- 
ern portion of the sugar-beet area or in any of the beet fields of 
foreign countries. It has appeared in practically all States west of 
Minnesota and Iowa where sugar beets are groAvn commercially, 
although it has not been seen in all of the sugar-beet areas of the 
AVest. It is not due to unfavorable climatic or soil conditions: nor 
is it due to the kind or quality of seed used. It is connected in some 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN 1920. 47 

way with a so-called leafhopper, which appears to be only a carrier 
and not the real cause of this disease. A further study of curly-top 
has been undertaken by the Office of Sugar-Plant Investigations in 
cooperation with the Bureau of Entomology, in the hope of being able 
to determine the exact cause of the disease, and especially for the 
purpose of finding some practical means of control. Curly-top does 
not usually occur to any serious extent two years in succession in 
the same field, although there are some exceptions to this rule. Fre- 
quently it will occur over a given area, destroying or stunting to a 
worthless size practically all of the beets for a season and then 
almost entirely disappear, so that the next year beets of good tonnage 
and quality may be grown on the same fields. It is possible that 
there are other carriers besides the leafhop[>er and that certain soil 
and climatic conditions favor the development of this disease. The 
real cause, however, is undoubtedly organic in nature ; it is probably 
either an organism or an organic compound; but vmtil this cause is 
known little progress can be made in finding a reliable method of 
control. Curly-top has played an important part in closing at least 
two l)eet-sugar mills and has caused losses of hundreds of thousands 
of dollars in other localities. 

Root-rot. — There are several destructive diseases of the sugar beet 
known as root-rot. One of these is due to a fungus called Phoma 
and another is due to a fungus known as Rhizoctonia. Other root 
rots less extensive or little knoAvn are due to other fungi or to 
bacteria. The Phoma rot seems to be more prevalent and more 
destructive than the Rhizoctonia. These fungi attack the beets in 
the field, usually in midsummer. Sometimes they destroy the plants 
before they are harvested, causing a serious loss to the grower. In 
other cases they make only a slight attack on the beet in the field, 
but develop more or less rapidly when the beet has been placed in 
storage, either for sugar-making purposes or for seed production. 
The Phoma fungus causes more loss to stored roots than any other 
agency, especially if the temperature favors the development of the 
fungus. These diseases are found in all parts of the sugar-beet 
area in this country and in Europe. The most successful means 
of combating the root-rot of beets in the field is crop rotation, 
and if it does not get started in the field there is little danger 
of its developing in storage. 

Leaf-spot. — Two fungi which produce spots on the leaves of beets 
are more or less general throughout the United States aiul Europe. 
One of these is known as Cercospora and the other as Phoma ; the 
latter is the same fungus that produces the root-rot. When the 
spores of either of these fungi fall upon the beet leaves and the con- 
ditions are favorable the fungus growth attacks the tissue of the 
leaf, producing distinct and characteristic spots. The Cercospora 



48 BULLETIN 995, U. S. DEPAETMEISTT OF AGRICULTURE. 

fungus does not generally attack any part of the beet plant except 
the leaf blade and the ])etiole, while the Phoma may attack leaf 
and root. If these fungi are present in large numbers they may 
do considerable damage to the l)eet crop. If the attacks are severe 
early in the season the growth of the beets is retarded, and conse- 
quently the yield is reduced. If the attacks do not occur until 
late in the season, after the beets have practically reached their 
normal growth the disease will reduce the sugar without appre- 
ciably affecting the tonnage. If these fungi attack the beets in 
midsummer both the yield and the quality will l)e generally reduced. 
These diseases may best be controlled l)}^ deep fall jdowing and by 
crop rotation. Crop rotation is especially recommended where it 
can be practiced, but in cases where it is necessary to follow beets 
with beets after these diseases have appeared, the ground should 
be plowed in the fall to a good depth, not less than 12 to 14 inches. 
In fact, all plant-pathological problems, from a practical stand- 
point, are closely connected with the cultural phases of crop pro- 
duction. Production can not be successfully studied without a 
knowledge of the diseases affecting that particular crop, nor can the 
disease of a croj) be intelligently considered with reference to con- 
trol measures except in conjunction with the cultural practices and 
with a knowledge of the conditions under which that crop is grown. 

INSECTS. 

The principal insects affecting sugar beets have been treated in 
various publications of the Bureau of P^ntomology. A list of these 
publications is given at the end of this bulletin. Among the im- 
l^ortant forms which affect the leaves are webworms and the beet 
army worm. In some localities blister beetles, leaf beetles, and local 
pests do considerable damage, mainly by destroying the foliage. 
They also have a retarding effect on the growth of the beet, but the 
principal injury is due to the destruction of the foliage and the con- 
sequent expenditure of energy and food required by the plant to 
produce a new set of leaves. Usually these insects start in small 
areas on one side or a corner of a field and spread rapidly. Of some 
species there are several generations in a season, and if Aveather con- 
ditions favor their development much damage is frequently done. 
In the case of insects working early in the season the tonnage of the 
beets may be greatlj^ reduced, and if the insects continue until late in 
the season the sugar content also will be loAvered considerably. 
Sugar-beet insects as a general rule are more or less local and are 
seldom very destructive for more than one or two years in succession. 

All biting or chewing forms of insects are susceptible to poisons 
and may be controlled by the use of arsenate of lead, Paris green, or 
other arsenicals. 



THE BEET-SUCAi; iXDUSTRY IN 1920. 49 

The leafhopper. previously mentioned as a carrier of curly-top, is 
frequently very destructive indirectly. After feeding upon disease<l 
plants it punctures the leaf blades or leaf stems of healthy beets with 
its slender beak and injects into the plant some substance or oro-anism 
which exerts a decidedly unfavorable effect upon its growth. 

Among insects working in or near the roots are cutworms, wire- 
worms, and white grubs, all of which are ver}'^ destructive. White 
grubs are abundant in sod land; therefore such lands should not be 
selected for growing sugar beets. Wireworms and cutworms as a rule 
are more destructive early in the season while the beets are small. 
They frequently destroy the stand to such an extent that replanting 
is necessary. Cutworms come from the surface of the ground and 
cut off the plants during the night. Poisoned baits, prepared and 
applied according to directions which will be furnished by the 
Bureau of Entomology, are practically perfect remedies. Wire- 
worms usually follow the row of young beets when they have begun 
their work of destruction, and since they usually remain in a row a 
second planting should be made in the same direction, so that the 
rows are parallel and several inches from the original planting, with- 
out harrowing or disking. If this method is pursued the second 
planting will often become so large that little wireworm damage will 
be done. Other remedies, however, are necessary.' 

The false chinch bug is a serious enemy to seed beets, frequentlj^ 
appearing in immense numbers and working on the growing tender 
seed stalks and leaves. When present in large numbers it freijuentlv 
absorbs by suction so much of the vital juices of the plant that either 
the seed stalks are destroyed or the seed fails to mature. This insect 
may be controlled in limited areas by the use of contact sprays, such 
as nicotine sulphate, 40 per cent, or fish-oil soap. The false chinch 
bug usually makes its first appearance on a small number of plants. 
Gathering the bugs from these plants and destroying them is very 
helpful in controlling this pest. 

BY-PRODUCTS. 

The principal by-products connected with sugar-beet growing and 
beet-sugar production are the beet tops, pulp, and lime. The first two 
of these have already been considered under live stock. The lime is 
an important by-product of the mill used in purifying the juice in 
the process of separating the sugar from the nonsugars in solution. 
For this purpose limestone is obtained and burned. The limestone 
should be as pure as it is possible to find it and should be thoroughly 



^ S(X' Bulletin 123, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.. " A preliminsir.v import on 
till- sugar-l)cet wiroworm," fi8 p., 23 pis., 9 figs. 1914. (Superintendent of Docu'inonts, 
Wnshinston, D. C, pri(« 2.j cents.) 

.-)(;S30"— r,iill.O().-j— 21 4 



50 BULLETIN 995, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE. 

and evenly biii"lie(:l. The beet juice is treated with this burned lime- 
stone, and a large part of the mineral matter taken up by the beet 
plants in the process of growth combines with the lime and is removed 
by filtering. The lime is then washed out or otherwise removed from 
the mill and is known as waste lime or lime sludge. Large quantities 
of this material accumulate at the various mills and may be used as a 
soil improver and as a fertilizer. It is beneficial chiefly because of the 
lime, which tends to improve the physical condition of the soil, and 
slightly because of the mineral matter that the lime has removed from 
the beet juice. The use of this material as a fertilizer has not become 
general in this country. In some of the beet-sugar countries in 
Europe this by-product is all vised in making commercial fertilizers. 
It is used in part as a filler in the manufacture of fertilizer and in part 
as a soil improver just as it comes from the sugar mill. It therefore 
has in this coilntry two possibilities : First, it may be used just as it 
comes from the mill. and. second, it may be used in the manufacture 
of commercial fertilizers. When first removed from the mill it is wet 
and can be handled with difficulty, but it soon dries sufficiently to be 
handled readily, is friable and easily incorporated with the soil, and 
should all be used in improving farm lands. In some localities where 
the value of this material has been realized it is washed out and car- 
ried in ditches or flumes to the fields, where it is spread b}^ the irrigat- 
ing water. In this way it may be handled quickly at a minimum cost, 
and if care is taken it may be evenly spread. As soon as the ground 
on which the lime has been spread is sufficiently dry it should be 
plowed and the lime thoroughly mixed with the soil. 

For sugar-beet culture there is very little danger of getting too 
much lime in the soil. Beets not only thrive well on limed soil, but 
the lime seems to have a beneficial effect under some conditions in 
retarding the development of certain plant diseases. 

ROADS. 

One of the most important factors in developing a beet-sugar 
industry is that of roads. Certain localities otherwise adapted to 
sugar-beet growing have been found in which this crop can not be 
recommended or encouraged because of the condition of the roads. 
Fortunately the interest in roads during the past few years has greatly 
reduced the number of such localities. Road building and sugar-beet 
culture have been mutually helpful. It is only by having good roads 
that crops which must be hauled to market in numerous heavy loads 
can be handled successfully; likewise, the demand that these crops 
have made for good roads has stimulated their building and improve- 
ment, as shown in Plate VI, figure 2. 

There are three points to be considered in connection with roads 
as related to sugar-beet culture: (1) The length of the haul. (2) the 



THE B?:ET-SU(;Ari INDUSTRY IX 1920. 51 

topography of the country, and (H) the nature of the roadbed. In 
general it has been found that -t or 5 miles is the maximum distance 
that sugar beets can be hauled profitably. It is ap|)arent that the 
distance depends to a great extent upon the topograpliy and the 
nature of the roadbed. If the country is hilly, and especially if 
the hills are steep, it frequently is unprofitable to haul sugar beets. 

Unless at least 3 tons of beets can be hauled per load the condi- 
tions must be very favoi'able to make the handling of this crop 
profitable. In the surA'ey by the Office of Sugar-Plant Investiga- 
tions, cooperating with the Office of Farm Management and Farm 
Fconomics, it has been found that, other things being equal, the 
cost of delivering beet roots increases directly with the distance. In 
this surve}^ the topography and the care of the roadbed were practi- 
cally the same for all cases compared. It is apparent that it would 
l>e more expensiye to haul a short distance over a poor or hilly road 
than several times that distance over a level stone road (PI. VI, 
fig. 2.) In speaking of the hauling distance, reference is made not 
to the distance from the factory, but to the loading station or point of 
delivery. In this respect the grower near the sugar mill has no ad- 
vantage over the grower many miles away, provided the latter is near 
a beet dump. 

The railroad haul is another point to be considered. As a rule, 
beets can not be transpoited more than 100 miles with pi'ofit. at least 
under normal conditions. There are, of course, circumstances under 
which longer hauls are permissible and profitable. Frequently in 
trying out a new sugar-beet section it is necessary to haul the roots 
several hundred miles, but in such cases it is not expected that any 
considerable ))rofit Ay ill be obtained from these beets, and, in fact, 
tiiey sometimes are transported long distances at a loss in order to 
determine whether beets of sufficient yield and quality to make beet 
growing profitable can be groAvn in a given locality. The length of 
the railroad haul depends to some extent upon the local conditions, 
the returns that may l)e obtained, and whether the haul is oyer a 
single road or over two or more lines. 

CONTRACTS. 

All sugar beets grown commercially for sugar-making purposes are 
grown under contract. These contracts are issued by the sugar com- 
pany and are signed by some official or agent of the company and 
also by the beet grower. The pi-inci])al ])oints coyercd in tlie con- 
tracts include the acreage to be planted, the i)rice to be ]);nd for the 
beets, the methods of handling the crop, the time of harvest, and the 
reirulation of delivery. (\)ntracts are necessary because a definite 
acreage of sugar l^eets is re(iuired in order to make a successful mill 



■52 BULLETIiSr 995, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTUEE. 

run. Each mill should have enough raw material for at least a 100- 
day run, although the average operating period for 1920 was only 91 
days, as shoAvn by Table IV. It Avould be a source of loss to the sugar 
company to undertake to operate a mill with beets enough for only 
50 days, or at half capacity. Knowing the average yield of beets per 
acre in a given locality, it is comparatively simple to determine ap- 
proximately the number of acres that will be required to produce a 
satisfactory run under normal conditions. Furthermore, it is im- 
portant that the sugar company shall have a written agreement or 
contract setting forth the time of delivery of the beets. Beet roots 
must be delivered in sufficient quantity to supply the mill from day 
to day. It is very expensive to close a mill and let it remain idle even 
for a few hours during the sugar-making period; hence, there must 
be some understanding with regard to the delivery of the beets. On 
the other hand, the beets must not be delivered too rapidly, since 
they might deteriorate in quality if stored too long, especially in 
certain localities or under certain climatic conditions wdiere the spoil- 
ing of the beets before they could be put through the mill might be a 
matter of considerable magnitude. 

The growers require a contract because they must be insured a 
market for the beets at a fixed price. This is one of the few croi)s 
grown on a commercial scale in Avhich the market price or at least 
the basis for fixing the price is known even before the seed is planted 
and for which there is no market of any importance except for sugar- 
making purposes. 

There are three general forms of contract so far as the price to 
be paid for beet roots is concerned, namely, the flat rate, the sliding 
scale, and the profit-sharing plan. This feature of the contract relat- 
ing to the price of beets differs with different companies and in dif- 
ferent localities. 

Flat rate. — The flat-rate contract fixes a definite price which the 
farmers are to receive for the beets regardless of the quality of the 
roots. It is usually stipulated in the contract that the roots must 
possess a specified sugar content and purity in order to be accepted, 
but in all of the beet-growing areas there is no record that any 
sound sugar beets have been rejected because of poor quality. The 
advantage in this clause in the contract lies in the fact that the fields 
that are not testing as high in sugar and purity as is required by 
the contract can be held until a later date before harvesting. Usually 
the sugar content of the roots increases raj^idly in the fall, so that 
a delay of a few days at or near ha i- vesting time frequently means 
a decided increase in the sugar content and an improvement in tlie 
purity of the roots. Tlie flat rate is the price per ton for the clean 
and properly topped roots. It differs in different localities and 



THE BKET-SUGAR IXDl'STKY IX 1!>2(). 53 

varies from year to year in the same locality. The direction and 
extent of the variation depend upon labor conditions and upon the 
wholesale price of sugar. 

.sli(H)ig scale. — The second form of contract so far as the price of 
the beet roots is concerned is the so-called sliding scale. The other 
features in the contract, aside from the price to be paid for the beets, 
are usually the same as in the fiat-rate contract. The sliding scale 
of beet prices is based either upon the percentage of sugar in the 
beet or upon the market price of sugar at a given time and place, 
or it is based upon a combination of the sugar in the beet and the 
price of sugar. In those contracts in which the scale of prices for 
beets depends upon the sugar content of the beet root there is a mini- 
mum price per ton for a beet of a given quality and an increased price 
per ton for each unit or fraction of 1 per cent of sugar in the 
beet above the minimum. The minimum price and the minimum 
quality of the root agreed upon differ in different localities, but are 
definitely stated in the contract. The rate of increase also varies in 
different localities; for example, one sugar company may agree to 
pay a minimum price of $5 per ton for beets testing 12 per cent 
sugar, while another company may agree to pay a minimum price of 
$6 per ton for a minimum of 14 per cent sugar content. They may 
also agree to increase the price 25 cents or 83^ cents per ton for each 
per cent of sugar above the minimum. 

The price scale for beets, based upon the market price of sugar, 
Avas in use in several localities for the first time in 1917. Since that 
date the price of sugar has played an important part in the price of 
beet roots in all sugar-beet areas. In these contracts the price of 
sugar at a given time and for a definite stated period is taken as the 
basis. If the price of sugar at the place and for the time specified 
is $6 per hundred, for example, the price paid for the beets will be 
$(*) per ton or $7 per ton, as may be agreed upon and specified in the 
contract. Usually a minimum price to be paid for the roots is stated 
in the contract with a stated increase for each unit of increase in the 
price of sugar. This would seem to be an equitable arrangement, 
since the greatest profit to the grower and to the sugar company 
would result Avhen the price of sugar is high, and both would share 
the smaller profit or the loss when the price of sugar is low. 

Profit sharing. — In the profit-sharing contract the grower is guar- 
anteed a fixed minimum price for beets, the sugar companies to ac- 
cept a minimum price for sugar, which presumably will give the 
grower and the sugar company approximately the same profit per 
ton of beets. It is further agreed that all profits in excess of the 
amounts above mentioned shall be divided equally between the 
grower and the sugar company. In areas where this contract or the 



54 BULLETIN 995, U. S. DP]PARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

sliding scale contract is offered the grower, a flat-rate contract is 
available, if desired. 

Tare. — One of the important factors in handling sugar beets is 
that of tare, and it forms an important clause in the contract. Tare 
consists of two distinct parts, one of which is the dirt which clings 
to the beet roots Avhen delivered, and the other is the part of the 
crown that is sometimes left on the beet when the beet is topped. 
Tare is obtained by taking a sample from a load of beets and weigh- 
ing it carefully. The dirt is then removed from this sample, usually 
by means of a stiff brush, and the beets, if not properly topped, are 
correctly topped and the cleaned, topped roots again weighed. The 
difference between the original weight of the sample and the clean, 
properly topped beets is the tare. This is usuallj^ reduced to a per- 
centage, and the entire load is tared on the basis of the sample tared. 
Most sugar-beet tare houses are provided Avith scales that give a 
direct reading of the percentage of tare for each sample as it is 
weighed. 

AREA COMPETITION. 

Competition for acreage between adjacent sugar-beet areas secured 
by different sugar companies may or may not be of advantage to the 
beet-sugar industry as a Avhole, and consequently may or may not 
be beneficial to beet growers residing within those areas. If the 
acreage in a given area is sufficient to support two mills, for example, 
the competition in securing acreage for each of these mills may, if 
properly handled, stimulate the dcA^elopment of the industry in that 
area. If, on the other hand, a sugar mill is established in a given 
area having a limited sugar-beet acreage, due regard being had for 
proper crop rotation, and a second mill is built in the same area, 
the results may be disastrous to both of the mills and may result 
in retarding or preventing the development of the beet-sugar in- 
dustry in that locdlity. 

In all lines of business, competition is desirable under certain con- 
ditions, but in the beet-sugar industry a certain acreage of beets is 
necessary to enable a sugar mill to operate on a profitable basis. If 
a competing mill draAvs upon the beet acreage in a given locality to 
such an extent that the raAv material is not sufficient to provide a 
satisfactory and profitable run for either of the mills, one or both 
of them must necessarily suspend operations. This result must lead 
to disappointment and financial loss on the jjart of those who have 
invested in the mills, and it deprives the groAvers of the benefits of 
sugar-beet production, inasmuch as the closing of the mills must 
necessarily leave the groAvers Avithout a market for their product. 



THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN 1920. 55 

Sugar-beet i)i'0(liicin<i- areas may sometimes be extended by bring- 
in*; in lands not previously under cultivation, by the development or 
extension of suitable means of irrigation, or by instituting or extend- 
ing a suitable drainage system Avhicli will reclaim lands not now 
under cultivation. In this manner areas that are now capable of sup- 
plying but one mill with raw material may eventually be made to 
supply two or more mills. In all cases the necessary acreage for the 
maintenance of a mill should be in sight, without injury to existing 
mills or to local growers, before any money is expended in the erec- 
tion of another mill. If this point is kept in mind, some of the finan- 
cial losses and disappointments Avhich iuA^estors have experienced in 
the past will be avoided. 

SUGAR-BEET SEED. 

One of the most important factors influencing beet-sugar produc- 
tion is that of seed. Not only must there be an adeciuate supply of 
seed to plant the necessary acreage for each sugar factory, but the 
seed must be of high grade ; that is, it must be capable of germinating 
so that a good stand will be produced, and it must be capable of pro- 
ducing beets of satisfactory yield and quality. The present varieties 
of sugar-beet seed are apparently very much mixed, as indicated by 
commercial fields in all parts of the beet area. Efforts are being 
made at each of the beet-seed stations of the Office of Sugar-Plant 
Investigations to produce distinct strains of sugar beets of high 
qualit}^ for commercial planting. An endeavor is being made to in- 
crease the yield and quality of the seed and to establisli an American 
beet-seed industr}^ capable of meeting all domestic requirements. 

Imported seed. — Until within recent years practically all sugar- 
beet seed planted in the United States was imported from Europe. 
This imported seed consisted of more than 20 so-called varieties, 
many of these varieties being simply strains bearing the name of 
the growers or the locality where the seed Avas produced. There ap- 
pears to be little difference in results between the varieties imj^orted. 
More seems to depend upon soil and climatic conditions and the cul- 
tural methods used in growing the crop than upon the particuhir 
variety of seed used. 

Home-go'Oirn seed. — In recent years efforts have been made to 
produce American strains of sugar-beet seed and to produce them 
in commercial quantities in this country. In 1917 about 5,000 acres 
of beet seed were groAvn, yielding about 55,000 sacks of seed, and a 
still larger crop of American-grown seed has been produced with 
each succeeding year. In 1920 about one-third of the sugar-beet seed 
required by Ai^ierican growers was produced in the ITnited States. 
Even with an increased home production, we must continue for some 



56 BULLETIN 9fl"), r. y. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

time to look to foreign countries for a consideruble part of our 
beet-seed supply. To make our beet-suo-ar industry safe and to insure 
American <irowers of suo:ar beets an adequate supply of hifrh-frrade 
seed free from the seed of stock beets we should produce annually 
from 16,000 to 20,000 acres of beet seed. This acreage must neces- 
sarily be increased from year to year to care for the constantly in- 
creasing acreage of sugar beets if the American beet-sugar industr}- 
is to be made safe and permanent. 



PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRI- 
CULTURE RELATING TO SUGAR AND ITS PRODUCTION. 

PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. 

Su.^ai- aiul Its Valne as Food. (Fnrniprs' Bulletin .^tS.".) 

Su}iiii'-Beet Growing under Irrigation. (Farmers' Bulletin HOT, second revision.) 

Sujiar-Beet Growinji under Humid Conditions. (Farmers' Bulletin nOS. second 
revision.) 

Leaf-Spot: A Disease of the Sugar Beet. (Farmers' Bulletin CIS.) 

Grasshoppers and Their Control on Su.gar Beets and Truck Croi>s. (Farmers' 
Bulletin 691.) 

The False Chinch Bug and IMeasui-es for Controlling It. (Farmers' Bulletin 
762. ) 

Control of the Sugar-Beet Nematode. (Farmers' Bulletin 772.) 

Sugar-Beet Sirup. (Farmers' Bulletin 823.) 

Rodent Pests of the Farm. (Farmers' Bulletin 932.) 

Saving Man Labor in Sugar-Beet Fields. (Farmers' Bulletin 1042.) 

Beet-Top Silage and Other By-Products of the Sugar Beet. (Farmers' Bul- 
letin 1095.) 

Sugar-Beet Seed Growing in the Rocky Mountain States. (Farmers' Bul- 
letin 1152.) 

The Sugar-Beet Nematode in the Western United States. (Farmers' Bulletin 
1248.) 

Loss in Tonnage of Sugar Beets l)y Drying. (Department Bulletin No. 199.) 

Conditions Influencing the Production of Sugar-Beet Seed in the United States. 
(Separate .503 from Yearbook for 1909.) 

The Present Status of the Sugar-Beet Seed Industry in the United States. 
(Separate 695 from Yearbook for 1916.) 

Destroying Rodent Pests on the Farm. (Separate 708 from Yearbook for 1916.) 

Statistics of Crops Other than Grain Crops. (Separate 720 from Yearbook for 
1916.) 

Sugar Supply of the United States. (Separate 756 from Yearbook for 1917.) 

Tlirips as Pollinators of Beet Flowers. (Department Bulletin No. 104.) 

Farm Practice in Growing Sugar Beets for Three Districts in Utah and Idaho, 
1914-15. (Department Bulletin No. 693.) 

Farm Practice in Growing Sugar Beets for Three Districts in Colorado, 1914- 
15. (Department Bulletin No. 726.) 

Farm Practice in Growing Sugar Beets in the Billings Region of Montana. 
(Department Bulletin No. 735.) 

Farm Practice in Growing Sugar Beets in Michi.gan and Ohio. (Department 
Bulletin No. 748.) 

Farm Practice in Growing Sugar Beets in Three California Disti'icts. (Depart- 
ment Bulletin No. 760.) 

Fai-m Practice in Growing Field Cro]).^- in Three Sugar-Beet Districts of Colorado. 
(Department Bulletin No. 917.) 

The Agricultural Situation for 1918, Pt. III. Sugar. (Secretary Circular No. 86.) 

Sugar Supply of t^e United States; Its Extent and Dis-tribution on August 31. 
1917. (Secretary Circular No. 96.) 

57 



58 Bin.LP:TIN 995, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AfiFJCrLTURE. 

PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERN- 
MENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

The Sus'ar Beet: Culture, Seed Development. Manufacture, and Slatlstios. 

(Farmers' Bulletin 52.) Price, 5 cents. 
Irrigation of Susar Beets. (Farmers' Bulletin 392.) Price, 5 cents. 
Statistics of Sugai- in the United States and Its Insular Possessions, 1881-1912. 

( r>epartiiient Bulletin No. 66.) Price, 5 cents. 
Field Stu<lies of the Crown-Gall of Sugar Beets. (Department Bulletin No. 

203. ) Price, .1 cents. 
The Susar-Beet Thrips. (Department Bulletin No. 421.) Price, o cents. 
I'roduction of Sugar in the United States and Foreign Countiies. ( Departuiciit 

Bulletin No. 473. ) Price, 10 cents. 
The Beet Leaf-Beetle. ( I >epcirtment Bulletin No. 892.) Price, 15 cents. 
Curly-Top, a Disease of the Sugar Beet. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 

No. 122. ) Price. 15 cents. 
The Curly-Toit of Beets. (Bnreau of Plant Industry liuiletin No. 181.) Price, 

15 cents. 
A Biochemical Stmly of theCurly-Toj) of Sugai- Beets. (Bnreau of I'lant In- 
dustry Bulletin No. 277.) Price, 5 cents. 
Experiments with Sugar Beets in 1893. ( P>ureau of (Jhemistry liuUetiii No. 39.) 

Price, 5 cents. 
The Influence of Environment upon the Composition of the Sugar Beet, 1902, 

Including a Study of Irrigated Sections. (Bureau of Chennstry Bulletin No. 

78.) Price, 5 cents. 
Analyses of Sugar Beets, 1905 to 1910, together with Methods of Sugar Deter- 
mination. (Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. 146.) Price. 10 cents. 
[The Beet Army Worm. | In Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the 

Association of Econiunic Entomologists. (Bureau of Entomology Bulletin 

No. 26, p. 79. ) Price, 10 cents. 
A Brief Account of the Principal Insect Enendes of tlu- Sugar Beet. (Burejiu of 

Entomology Bulletin No. 43.) Price, 5 cents. 
The Sugar-Beet Crown-Borer. In Some Mis<^'ellaneons Results of the Work of 

the Bureau of Entomology. (Bureau of Entomology Bulletin No. 54. pji. 34 - 

40.) Price, 10 cents. 
The Beet Ai-my Worm. In Report on Miscellaneous Cotton In.sects in Texas. 

(Bureau of Entomology Bulletin No. 57, pp. 35-36.) Price. 5 cents. 
The Leafhoi)i)ers of the Sugar Beet and Their Relation to the "Curly-Leaf" 

Condition. (Bureau of Entomology Bulletin No. 66, part 4.) Price. 10 -e'lts. 
The Hawaiian Beet Webworni. (Bureau of Entomology Bulletin No. 109, part 

1.) Price, 5 cents. 
The Southern Beet Web\\orm. (Bureau of EnH)mology Bulletin No. 199. ]);irt 2.) 

I'rice, 5 cents. 
The Sugar-Beet Webworm. (Bureau of Entomology Bulletin No. 1<>9. part 6.-) 

Price, 5 cents. 
A Preliminary Report on the Sugar-Beet Wireworm. (Bureau of Entomology 

Bulletin No. 123.) Price, 25 cents. 
Utilization of Residues from Beet-Sugar .Manufacture in Cattle Feeding. ( Sepa- 
rate 137 from Yearbook for 1898.) Price, 5 cents. 
Relation of Sugar Beets to General Farming. (Seiiarsite :!20 from Yearl)ook 

for 1903.) Price, 5 cents. 
Progress of the Beet-Sugar Industry in the United States in 1909. (Report No. 

92. ) Price. 10 cents. 



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